Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb

SYNTAX

OF

THE MOODS AND TENSES

OF

THE GREEK VERB.

BY

WILLIAM W. GOODWIN, Ph.D.,

HLIOT PROFESSOR OF GREEK LITERATURE IN E-iRVARD UNIVERSITY.

SEVENTH EDITION, REVISED. £3K

>

BOSTON:
GINN AND HEATH
1879.

PA

1873

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860,

By W. W. GOODWIN,

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

University Press: John Wilson &: Son,
Cambridge.

PREFACE

TO THE FIFTH EDITION.

Since the publication of the second edition of this work in
1865, several changes of expression and many corrections
have been made, which it is impossible to enumerate in full.
In preparing the fourth edition in 1870, and the fifth edition
in 1873, the work has been carefully revised ; several sections
and notes have been rewritten, and some notes have been
added. The only changes which can affect references made to
the earlier editions (besides those mentioned on page v.) will
be found in § 10, 1, Remark; § 11, Note 7 ; § 18, 1, Note;
§ 19, Note 6 ; § 66, 2, Note 3 ; § 78, Note ; and § 114, 2,
Note : these have been added since the second edition was
printed. Changes of expression and additions will be found
in the Remark before § 12 ; § 18, 1 ; § 23, 2, Note 3 ; § 37,
1 ; § 45, Note 7 (a) ; § 69, 1 ; § 70, 1 ; § 86, Note 1 (b) ;
§ 88, Remark ; and § 89, 2, Note 1 and Remark 1 ; not to
mention others of less importance. The most important change
made in the fifth edition will be found in the statement of the
classification of conditional sentences (§ 48). This has been
adopted to make clearer the position of the present and past
" general suppositions " which have the subjunctive and opta-
tive in Greek (§ 51), as opposed to the present and past "par-
ticular suppositions " which have the simple indicative (§ 49, 1 ).
This distinction of these two classes in protasis is a striking
peculiarity of Greek syntax ; most languages having a single
form of expression for both particular and general conditions
here, as the Greek has in other kinds of conditions. I can-
not state too distinctly, that the chief peculiarity of my classi-

PREFACE.

fication of conditional sentences consists in treating present
and past general conditions as closely allied to ordinary pres-
ent and past conditions (being actually united with thern in
one class in most languages, and occasionally even in Gi-eek),
and as only remotely connected, at least in sense, with the
externally similar forms of future conditions which have the
subjunctive and optative. This relation is especially obvious
when we see that iav 71-007 as a general supposition is occa-
sionally represented by ei iroul, whereas iav 7701,7 in a future
condition is equivalent to ei noirjo-ei in the indicative. I have
explained this at greater length in the Philologus, Vol.
XXVIII. pp. 741-745 (Gottingen, 1869), and in a paper
read before the American Philological Association in July,
1873. The change in §48 has made necessary slight changes
of expression in § 12; § 13, 1 ; § 20 ; § 21, 1 ; § 49, 1 ; § 51 ;
§ 60 ; § 61, 1 ; and § 62. An index to the examples which
have been added in the later editions is given on page 242.

Harvard College, September, 1873.

The last-mentioned paper, in which the change in the
classification of conditional sentences made in the edition of
1873 is explained and the whole system is defended, may be
found in the Transactions of the American Philological Asso-
ciation for 1873, and in the Journal of Philology, Vol. V.,
No. 10.

September, 1875.

PREFACE

TO THE SECOND EDITION.

In the first edition of the present work, published in 1860,
I attempted to give a plain and practical statement of the prin-
ciples which govern the relations of the Greek Moods and
Tenses. Although many of these principles were established
beyond dispute, there were others (and these often the most ele-
mentary) upon which scholars had long held the most opposite
opinions. Upon many of these latter points I presented new
views, which seemed to me to explain the phenomena of the
language more satisfactorily than any that had been advanced.
The favorable opinion of scholars has confirmed my belief, that
some such attempt as I have made was demanded by the ris-
ing standard of classical scholarship in this country, and has
given me reason to hope that my labor has not been entirely a
thankless one.

The progress in grammatical science in this century has
been made step by step, like that in every other science ; and
60 it must long continue to be. He who imagines that every
important principle of Greek and Latin syntax is as well un-
derstood and as clearly defined as the rules for addition and
multiplication in Arithmetic, has not yet begun to learn. It is
no disparagement of even the highest scholars, therefore, to say
that they have left much of the most important work to be
lone by their successors.

The vague notions so often expressed on the Greek Moods,
even by scholars of otherwise high attainments, are in strange
contrast with the accuracy demanded by scientific scholarship
in other departments. If the study of language is to retain its
present place (or indeed any prominent place) in the mental

U PREFACE.

discipline of youth, it must be conducted on strictly scientific
principles, and above all with scientific accuracy. On no other
ground can we defend the course of elementary grammatical
training, which is the basis of all sound classical scholarship.
An elementary grammar should be as short as the best scholar
can make it, but it should be as accurate as a chapter in Geom-
etry. To those who cannot appreciate the importance of
accuracy in scholarship, or even distinguish it from pedantry,
to those who cannot 6ee the superiority of the Greek in this
respect over Chinese or Choctaw, it is useless to speak ; but
surely no scholar can fail to see that an accurate knowledge of
the uses of the Greek Verb, with its variety of forms, each ex-
pressing its peculiar shade of meaning, must be indispensable
to one who would understand the marvellous power of the
Greek language to express the nicest distinctions of thought.

One great cause of the obscurity which has prevailed on this
subject is the tendency of so many scholars to treat Greek syn-
tax metaphysically rather than by the light of common sense.
Since Hermann's application of Kant's Categories of Modality
to the Greek Moods, this metaphysical tendency has been con-
spicuous in German grammatical treatises, and has affected
many of the grammars used in England and America more
than is generally supposed. The result of this is seen not
merely in the discovery of hidden meanings which no Greek
writer ever dreamed of, but more especially in the invention of
nice distinctions between similar or even precisely equivalent
expressions. A new era was introduced by Madvig, who has
earned the lasting gratitude of scholars by his efforts to restore
Greek syntax to the dominion of common sense. Madvig is
fully justified in boasting that he was the first to give lull and
correct statements on such elementary matters as the meaning
of the Aorist Optative and Infinitive, and the construction of on
and uj in oratio obliqua; although Professor Sophocles dis-
tinctly recognized the same principles in his Grammar, published
later in the same year with Madvig's (1847). I can hardly
express my great indebtedness to Madvig's Syntax der griechi-
sctten Sprache, and to his Bemerlcunyen uber einige Puncte der
griechischen Wortfugvngslehre (in a supplement to the Philolo-
gut, Vol. II.). The works of this eminent scholar have aided

PREFACE. Ill

me not only by the material which they have afforded as a
basis for the present work, but also by the valuable suggestions
with which they abound.

Next to Madvig, I must acknowledge my obligations to
Kruger's Griechische Sprachlehre, which has everywhere sup-
plied me with important details and most excellent examples.
I have been frequently indebted to the other grammarians,
who need not be specially mentioned. Baumlein's Unter-
suchungen liber die griechischen Modi reached me after the print-
ing of the first edition was begun. I have often been indebted
to his valuable collection of examples, and have derived many
hints from his special criticisms ; I regret that I cannot agree
with the general prii ciples to which he refers the uses of each
mood, especially as his criticisms of the prevailing German the-
ories on this subject are most satisfactory and instructive. I am
indebted to the personal advice and suggestions of my learned
colleague, Professor Sophocles, in the preparation of both
editions, for information which no books could have supplied.

I must acknowledge the following special obligations. The
notes on the tenses of the Indicative in Chapter II. are based
mainly on Kruger, § 53. The chapters on the Infinitive and
Participle are derived chiefly from Madvig's Syntax (Chapters
V. and VI.), and partly from Kruger, § 55, § 56. The note
on the Future Optative after onus, &c. (§ 26, Note 1) contains
the substance of Madvig's Bemerkungen, pp. 27 - 29 ; and the
account of the various constructions that follow verbs of hin-
drance and prevention (§ 95, 2 and 3) is based on the same
work, pp. 47 - 66. The statement of the principles of indirect
discourse (Chapter IV. Section IV.) was written in nearly its
present form before Madvig's Syntax reached me ; and I was
strongly confirmed in the views there expressed, by finding
that they agreed almost exactly with those of Madvis. I was
anticipated by him in my statement of the occasional use of the
Present Optative to represent the Imperfect, and in my quota-
tion of Dem. in Onet. I. 869, 12 to illustrate it. I am entirely
indebted to him, however, for the statement of the important
principle explained in § 74, 2.

It remains to state what new material the present work pro-
fesses to offer to scholars. The most important and most

IV PilEFACE.

radical innovation upon the ordinary system will be found in
the classification of conditional sentences (§ 48), with its devel-
opment in the rules that follow. I have explained the grou.ids
of this classification at some length in the Proceedings of the
American Academy, Vol. VI. p. 363, and will therefore merely
allude to them here. The great difficulty (or rather the im-
possibility) of defining the force of the Subjunctive in protasis
as distinguished from the Present Indicative, has arisen from
neglect of the distinction between 'particular and general suppo-
sitions. When this is recognized, the distinction between the
Subjunctive and the Present Indicative is seen to be entirely
one of time ; whereas all the common distinctions based on
possibility, certainty, &c. will apply only to select examples,
which of course are easily found to illustrate them. In the
first edition, I could not persuade myself to abandon the old
doctrines so completely as to exclude the common distinction
between the Subjunctive and the Optative in protasis, — that
the former implies a " prospect of decision," while the latter
does not. Subsequent experience has convinced me that there
is no more distinction between iav tovtq noijj and ft tovto iroioir)
than between the English if he shall do this and if he should
do this ; and 1 think every one must see that here there is no
distinction but that of greater or less vividness of expression.
The simple fact that both could be expressed by the Latin si
hoc faciat is a strong support of this view.

The principles of conditional sentences being first settled, I
have attempted to carry out the analogy between these and
conditional relative sentences more completely. It seems to
me that it is only by adopting the classification of conditional
sentences Avhich I have given, that the true nature of the anal-
ogous relative sentences can be made clear. (See § 60, § 61,
§ 62.) Upon a right classification of conditional sentences
depends also the right understanding of the forms used to ex-
press a wish (§ 82, § 83).

The frequent u>e of the Subjunctive with Iva, onus, &a,
after past tenses, instead of the Optative, of which I had never
seen a satisfactory explanation, is here explained on the prin-
ciple of oratio obliqua. (See § 44, 2; § 77, 2.) The con-
struction of the Infinitive with verbs like \prjv and edei, forming

PREFACE. T

an apodosis, is explained in the present edition on a new prin-
ciple, which (it is hoped) will remove many of the difficulties
which the old explanation did not reach. (See § 49, 2, Note 3
and Remarks.) In the first edition, the usual distinction be-
tween the constructions that follow ov /zij was adopted with
hesitation, including Elmsley's punctuation, by which the sec-
ond person of the Future in prohibitions with ov (if) is made
interrogative. In this edition both constructions are explained
more satisfactorily upon the same principle. (See § 89, 1 and 2.
with Notes and Remarks.) It is hoped that the new statement
of the force of the Perfect Infinitive, in § 18, 3, (a) and (b) of
this edition, will meet the difficulties which that tense presents.
The statement in the former edition was very defective.

It may seem strange to some that no general definitions of
the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative are attempted in the
first chapter. I have rather taken warning from the numerous
unsuccessful attempts that have been made to include all the
uses of these moods in comprehensive definitions, and have
preferred merely to illustrate their various uses by simple ex
amples at the outset, leaving the explanations to their propei
place in the book. For one, I am not ashamed to admit that 1
cannot propose a definition comprehensive enough to include
all the examples in § 1, § 2, or § 3, which shall still be limited
enough to be called a definition.

Besides the special changes already mentioned, the work has
been subjected to a thorough revision, so that in many parts
the new edition might claim to be an entirely new work.*

* Notwithstanding the changes in the second edition, very few alterations
have been made in numbering the paragraphs or notes. The following are
the only changes (except a few omissions) which can affect references al-
ready made to the first edition: — § 18, 8 is subdivided into (a) and (6); § 18,
3, Rem. takes the place of § 18, 4, Note; § 24, Notes 1 and 2 are rearranged;
$ 37, Note 2 is omitted, and N. 3 is changed to N. 2; § 45, N. 2 is subdivided
into (a) and (6); in § 49, 2, N. 3, the present divisions (c), (d), and (e) were
included in (b); § 64, 1 and 2 are rearranged; in § 92, 2, Note 1 is changed to
Remark; § 109, N. 9 was included in N. 3.

The following additions have been made in the second edition: — § 49,2,
N. 6 (fc); § 50, 1, Rem. 2; § 52, 2, Rem.; $ 53, N. 4; $ 64, Rem. 2; § 65, 3,
N. 2; § 65, 4; § 69, 5; § 71, Rem. 2; § 89, 2, Rem. 1 and 2; § 92, 2, N. 1;
§ 95, 3, Rem.; \ 108, N. 4 (6); § 112, 1, Rem.; § 112, 2, Rem.; $ 113, Rem.
after N. 1C. The following have been materially changed in subject or in
substance in the second edition: — $ 25, 1, N. 6 (b); § 41, N. 4; § 43, Rem.,-
Remarks 1 and 2 after S, 49. 2. N. 3; $ 82, Rem. 2; $89, 2. Notes 1 and 2.

PREFACE.

Especially, the collection of examples has been revised ana
greatly enlarged, with the object of illustrating every variety
of each construction from as wide a range of classic authors as
possible. An index to these examples (more than 2,300 in
number) is added to this edition. This index includes those
which are merely cited, as well as those actually quoted, many
of the former being quite as important as the latter. In the
new edition, the matter printed in the two larger types has
been reduced, and made as concise as was consistent with
accuracy, while that printed in the smallest type has been
greatly increased. It should be understood that only the first-
mentioned portion of the work is intended for use as a gram-
matical text-book, while the notes and remarks in the smallest
type are intended only for reference : with this view, the latter
are often extended to a greater length than would otherwise
be justifiable.

The Dramatists are cited by Dindorf's lines, except the
fragments, which follow the numbers in Nauck's edition ;
Plato, by the pages of Stephanus ; and Demosthenes, by
Reiske's pages and lines. In the Index to the Examples,
however, the sections of Bekker's German editions of Demos-
thenes have been added in each case, to facilitate reference.
Other citations will be easily understood.

Cambridge, June, 18C5.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE MOODS.

§ 1. The five Moods ... .... 1

§§ 2-4. Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative . . . 1, 2
§§5-7. Imperative, Infinitive, Participle, and Verbal in -riot 2, 3

CHAPTER II.

USE OF THE TENSES.

§ 8, 1. The seven Tenses 8

2. Primary and Secondary Tenses . . . 3

§ 9. Relative and absolute Time 3

Present and Imperfeet.
A. In the Indicative.

§ 10, 1. Present Indicative 4

2. Historic Present 6

§ 11. Imperfect 6

B. Present in the Dependent Moods.

Rem. — Distinction between Present and Aorist . . 8

§ 12. Present Subjunctive ....... 9

§18,1. Present Optative, not in indirect discourse . . 10
2. Present Optative in indirect discourse : —

(a.) Representing a Present Indicative . . . 11

(&.) Representing Pres. Subj. (in questions of doubt) 11

§ 14. Present Imperative 12

§15. Present Infinitive : —

1. In its ordinary use (indefinite in time) . . .12

2. In indirect discourse . . . . . . 13

3. As Imperfict Infinitive 15

§16. Present Participle : —

1. As Present . 16

2. As Imperfect . 17

yiii CONTENTS.

Perfect and Pluperfect.
A. In the Indicative.

§ 1 7, 1 Perfect Indicative 1 8

2. Pluperfect Indicative . • • • • .18

N. 2. Compound forms («ju and ^ with Perf. Part) 18

B. Perfect in the Dependent Moods.
§18. Relations of the Perfect to the Present . . . .19

1. Perfect Subjunctive and Optative .... 20

2. Perfect Imperative 21

3. Perfect Infinitive . .... 22, 23
* 4. Perfect Participle . .... 23

Aorist.

A. In the Indicative.

§19. Aorist Indicative 24

N. 2. Distinction between Aorist and Imperfect . . 24

B. Aorist in the Dependent Moods.

§ 20. Aorist Subjunctive 26

N. 1. Aorist Subjunctive as Future Perfect . . 26, 27

§ 21, 1. Aorist Optative not in indirect discourse . . 28

2. Aorist Optative in indirect discourse : —
(a.) Representing an Aorist Indicative . . .29

(b.) Representing an interrogative Aor. Subj. . . 29

§ 22. Aorist Imperative .30

§ 23. Aorist Infinitive : —

1. In its ordinary use

2. In indirect discourse ....••• 32
N. 2. After verbs of hoping, promising, &c. . . 32

§ 24. Aorist Participle 34

N. 1. With \avddva>, cf)6dva>, &C 34

N. 2. With nepieldov, eiretdov, &C 35

Future.

§ 25, 1. Future Indicative .....

N. 5. Future with force of Imperative . . . .37

N. 6. Future denoting pmenMntention . • • 37

2. Periphrastic Future (with fxeXXa) . • • .38

§ 26. Future Optative 38

N. 1. After onoos and fifj 39

§ 27. Future Infinitive 41

N. 1. Distinction between Future and Present or Aorist 41
N. 2. Future used for Present or Aorist . . . 41, 42
N. 3. Future after verbs of hoping, promising, &c. . . 43

§ 28. Future Participle 43

§ 29. Future Perfect 43

44

•

44

45

46,

47

#

47

47

47

48

CONTENTS. IX

N. 3. Expressed by Perfect Participle and e<ropai
N. 6. In the dependent moods ....

Gnomic and Iterative Tenses.

§ 80, 1. Gnomic Aoris1 and Perfect

N. 5. Gnomic Aorist in Infinitive and Participle
N. 6. Gnomic Perfect in Infinitive
2. Iterative Imperfect and Aorist with av

Notes. — Iterative Aorist in -<tkov, -<tk6ht)v . .

Dependence of Moods and Tenses.

§31,1-2. General Rules 48

Distinction between Primary and Secondary Tenses : —

§ 32. In the Indicative 49, 50

§ 33. In the Subjunctive and Imperative .... 50

§ 34. In the Optative 50-53

§ 35. In the Infinitive and Participle 53, 54

CHAPTER III.

THE PARTICLE "AN.

§ 36, 1 - 2. Two uses of Sp % . . 54

§ 37, 1. "Av not used with the Present and Perfect Indicative . 55

2. "Av with Future Indicative in early Poets . . 55
N. 1. In Attic Greek (rare) 56

3. "Av with Secondary Tenses of the Indicative . . 56
§ 38, 1. "Av with the Subjunctive in Protasis, &c. . . .56

2. "Av with the Subjunctive in Apodosis (Epic) . . 57

§ 39. "Av with the Optative 57

§ 40. 'Av not used with the Imperative . . . . 57

§41. "Av with the Infinitive and Participle . . . 57-61

1. Present 58

2. Perfect 59

3. Aorist 59

4. Future 60

§42,1-4. Position and repetition of av . . . .61-64

CHAPTER IV.

USE OF THE MOODS.

SECTION I.

Final and Object Clauses after "iva, 'Q$, *Oir»r,

"0(f)pa, AND Mq.

§48. Classification 65-67

N. 2. Negative Particle 67

X CONTENTS.

A. Pure Final Clauses.

J 4 4, 1. Subjunctive and Optative after Iva, o>s, ottcos, ur), &c. 67
N. 1. Future Indicative after orrcos, &c. . . .68

N. 2 and 3. *Av in Final Clauses . . . .68-70

2. Subjunctive after secondary tenses . . . .70

3. Secondary tenses of the Indicative after Iva, &c. . 72

B. Clauses with "Onus and "Onus ur) after Verbs of Striving, &c.

§ 4.5. Future Indicative, &c. after 6ira>s 73

N. 2. Homeric construction after <fipd{ofiai, &c. . 76, 77
N. 7. Elliptical expressions . . . . 78, 79
N. 8 (and foot-note). Dawes's Canon on owoos, &c. 79, 80

C. Clauses with Mr] after Verbs of Fearing, &c.

§ 46. Subjunctive and Optative after ur) .... 80
N. 1. Future Indicative after uti . . . . .82
N. 2. Elliptical expressions ..... 83
N. 5. Present and past tenses of the Indie, after ur) 83-85

SECTION II.
Conditional Sentences.

§ 47, 1. Protasis and Apodosis explained . . . . 87
2. *Av or Ke in Protasis and Apodosis . . . .87
3 (and Note). Negative particles 88

§48. Classification of Conditional Sentences . . . 88-92

I. Four Forms of Ordinary Conditional Sentences.

A. Present and Past Conditions.

49, 1. Simple Indicative in Protasis and Apodosis . . 92

N. 3. Future Indicative expressing present intention 93
2. Secondary tenses of the Indie, (cond. not fulfilled) . 93
N. 2. Omission of av in Apodosis . . . .96

N. 3. Verbs of necessity, &c. without av, in Apod. 97-100
N. 6. Homeric Optative for Indicative. . . 101, 102

B. Future Conditions.

§ 50, 1. Subjunctive with eav in Protasis 102

N. 1 . Future Indicative in Protasis . . . .103

N. 2. Homeric peculiarities . . . . . . 1 04

N. 3. Ei for iav with Subjunctive in Attic (rare) . 105

2. Optative in both Protasis and Apodosis . . .105

N. 1 Omission of av in Apodosis . . . .106

N. 2. "Av with Optative in Protasis . . . .107

II. Present and Past General Suppositions.

( 51. Subjunctive and Optative in Protasis . . . 107, 108
N. 3. Indicative after ei' ns 109

CONTENTS. Xl

Ellipsis and Substitution in Protasis or Apodosis.

§ 52, 1. Protasis implied in another clause, or expressed in a

Participle or other word . . . . .110

N. 1 and 2. Ellipsis of Verb of the Protasis . 111,112

2. Protasis suppressed . . . . . . .112

N. Optative with av like Imperat. or Fut. Ind. . 113

§53. Apodosis expressed in Infinitive or Participle . .113

Notes. — Ellipsis of the Apodosis . . . 114-116

Mixed Constructions. — Irregularities.

§ 54, 1-3. Protasis and Apodosis differing in form . 110-119
§ 55, 1. Two or more Protases with the same Apodosis . .119
2. Apodosis in a dependent construction . . . 119
§56. Ei after verbs expressing wonder, in dignation, &c. . .120
§57. Ae in Apodosis 121

SECTION III.
Relative and Temporal Sentences.

§ 58, 1. Relative and Temporal Words 121

2. Definite and Indefinite Antecedent . . . 121,122

3. Negative particles 122

A. Relative with a Definite Antecedent.

§ 59. Indicative after Relative with Definite Antecedent . 122
N. 1. Other constructions . . . . . .123

B. Relative toith an Indefinite Antecedent.

§60,1,2. Conditional Relative explained . . . 123-125
3. *kv in Conditional Relative clauses . . . .125
§ 61. Four forms of Conditional Relative clauses correspond-
ing; to the four forms of ordinary protasis . 125- 129

1. Simple Indicative (like § 49, 1) . _ . . . .125

2. Secondary tenses of the Indicative (like § 49, 2) . 126

3. Subjunctive (like § 50, 1) 127

4. Optative (like § 50, 2) . . . . _._ .128
§ 62. Conditional Relative clauses with general suppositions : —

Subjunctive and Optative (like § 51) . . . 129

N. 1. Indicative in these sentences (after ocrris) . 131

N. 3. Subjunctive in Homeric similes .... 132

§ 63, 1. Relative without civ, with the Subjunctive . . 133

2, 3, 4. Peculiarities in Cond. Relative clauses . 133-135

5. Parenthetical Relative clauses (o ti ttot eVnV) . 135

Assimilation in Conditional Relative Clauses.

§ 64, 1. Assimilation after Subjunctive or Optative . . 135

2. Assimilation after secondary tenses of Indicative . 136

Relative Clauses expressing a Purpose or Result.
§ 65, 1. Future Indicative after Relatives . . . .137

XU CONTENTS

N. 2. Subjunctive and Optative in Homer . . 1*8

N. 5. Relative clauses expressing a result . . .140

2. Future Indicative after i(\> a, iff) core . . . 140

3. Indicative after coo-re ....... 140

4. Causal Relative Sentences 141

Temporal Particles signifying Until and Before

that.

A. <,Ea)f,,'EoTe,*A^pt, Me'xpi, Eicroice, "Ocppa, Until.
§ 66, 1. 'Ecos, &c. with past tenses of Indicative . . . 142

2. "Ecos av, &c. with Subj. "Ecos, &c. with Optative 142, 143

3. "Ecos, &c. with secondary tenses of Indicative . . 143

4. "Ecos, &c. with Subj. and Opt. after general statements 144

B. IIpiV, Until, Before that.

§67. Finite Moods and Infinitive after irplv .... 144

1. Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative after irplv . 145

2. Infinitive after irplv (see § 106) 145

N. 3. H.p\v 7, irporepov fj, npocr&ev rj . . . . 146

SECTION IV.
Indirect Discourse.

§ 68, 1. Direct and Indirect Quotations distinguished . . 147

2. Manner of introducing Indirect Quotations . . 147

3. Indirect Questions . . . . . . .147

General Principles.

§ 69, 1. Principles of Indirect Quotations after on and «!>?,

and of Indirect Questions . . . . .148

2. Secondary tenses of the Indicative . . . . 148

3. Infinitive and Participle ...... 148

4. *Av in Indirect Discourse ..... 149

5. Negative particles in Indirect Discourse . . . 149

Indirect Quotation of Simple Sentences.

§ 70. Indicative and Optative after on or cos, and in Indirect
Questions : —

1. Indicative after primary tenses .... 149

2. Optative or Indicative after secondary tenses . . 150
Rem. 1 and 2. Both Moods in the same quotation . 151, 152
N. 1. (a.) Imperfect and Pluperfect retained . . 152

(b.) Present Optative as Imperfect . . .153

N. 3. Independent Optative (often with yap) . . 154

§ 71. Interrogative Subjunctive in Indirect Questions . 154, 155

§ 72. Indicative or Optative with av in Indirect Discourse . 156

§ 73, 1. Infinitive, with or without av, in Indirect Discourse . 157

2. Participle, with or without av, in Indirect Discourse 1 59

CONTENTS. XI11

Indirect Quotation of Compound Sentences.

$ 74, 1. Quotation of dependent clauses with a Subjunctive, or

a Present, Perfect, or Future Indicative . . 160
N. 1. Mixed constructions . . . . . .162

2. Quotation of dependent clauses with Imperfect, Plu-
perfect, or Aorist Indicative . . . .164

§ 75. Dependent clauses with secondary tenses of Indicative 165
§ 76. Dependent clauses with Optative ..... 165

Single Dependent Clauses in Indirect Quotation.

§ 77, 1. (a.) Clauses depending on an Infinitive after verbs of
commanding, &c. — (b.) Causal sentences stating a
cause assigned by others. — (c.) Clauses after « or
edv, in case that. — (c?.) Relative and temporal
clauses expressing a past intention. — (e.) Relative
sentences containing the thought of another . .166
2. Same principle applied to clauses after ha, oira>s, &c. 169

"Ojtcos and "o in Indirect Quotations.

§ 78, 1. "Ottcos for on or w?. 2. Homeric o for on . .170

Note. — 'Odovvena and ovveKa for on . . . 171

§ 79. "Or* before Direct Quotations 171

SECTION V.
Causal Sentences.

§ 80. Causal particles . . 1 71

§81,1. Indicative in Causal sentences 171

2. Optative after secondary tenses, to express a cause

assigned by others . . . ' . . . 1 72

N. 1. Cause expressed by an Apodosis . . .173

SECTION VI.
Expression of a Wish.

Rem. — Two classes of Wishes . . . .173

§82. Optative in Wishes 173,174

§83,1. Secondary tenses of Indicative in Wishes . . 178

2. *Q<pe\ov with the Infinitive . . . . 176,177

Rem. — Greek and Latin expressions compared . 177

SECTION VII.

Imperative and Subjunctive in Commands, Exhor-
tations, and Prohibitions.

§ 84. Imperative 1 78

§ 85. First person of Subjunctive in exhortations . . 1 79

§ 86. Pres. Imperat. or Aor. Subj. in prohibitions with ^ .180

XIV

CONTENTS.

SECTION VIII.

Subjunctive (like Fut. Ind.) ln Indepentent Sentences.
— Interrogative Subjunctive. — -Ov /xij with Subjunc-
tive ani> Future Indicative.

§ 87. Independent Subjunctive in Homer .... 181
Note. — With aV, in apodosis 182

§ 88. Interrogative Subjunctive (with or without jSovXet) . 182

§ 89. Double Negative, ov prj : —

1. With Subj. (rarely Fut. Ind.), as emphatic Future . 184
1. With Future Indicative in prohibitions . . .185

CHAPTER V.

THE INFINITIVE.

§ 90. Infinitive as a Verbal Noun ....
§ 91. Infinitive as Subject .....
§ 92. Infinitive as Object: —

1. Not in indirect discourse .....

2. In indirect discourse .....
N. 3. Infinitive after Relatives (by assimilation)

§ 93, 1 and 2. Infin. after Adjectives and Adverbs .
§ 94. Infinitive (with Article) after Prepositions .
§ 95, 1. Infinitive as Genitive or Dative .

2. Two constructions after verbs of hindrance, &c.
N. 1. Negative particles. Double Negative, yaf

3. Infinitive with to prj, after expressions implyin

vention, omission, or denial
§ 96. Infinitive and its adjuncts preceded by to .
§ 97. Infinitive expressing a purpose

N. 4. Infin. after Comparative and fj, than
§ 98, 1. Infinitive after coo-re (result)

2. Infin. after coo-re (condition or purpose) .

N. 1. 'Qs for coo-re, with Infinitive . .
§ 99. Infinitive after c(f) d or ecp' mrt .
§ 100. Absolute Infinitive (generally with cor or oo-ov)

N. 1. 'OXt'you (Seti/), almost, little short of .

N. 2. 'Ekcov eivai, to vxiv civai, &C •

§ 101. Infinitive used imperatively . . .
§ 102. Infinitive in wishes (like the Optative)
§ 1 03. Infinitive in laws, treaties, proclamations, &c.
§ 104. Infinitive expressing surprise or indignation .
§ 105. Infinitive in narration ....
§106 Infinitive after npiu .....

Notes. — Upiv 7, irporepov fj, Ttp6o~Q(v rj, ndpos

Rem. — Tenses of the Infinitive .

*

188

c •

188

189

•

192

1

193

. 193-

-195

,

197

# m

197

,

198

OV

200

lg pre-

. #

201

,

202

• •

203

•

204

• •

205

,

205

, .

20G

a

207

• »

207

a

208

• ,

208

•

208

# .

209

•

209

. #

209

.

210

. 210,

211

211,

212

• •

212

CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER VI.

THE PAKTICIPLE.

§107. Three uses of the Participle 213

§ 108, 1. Participle as Adjective 213

2. Participle (as Adjective) used substantively . .213
§ 109. Partic. denning the circumstances of an action : —

1-4. Time, means, manner, cause, Ike. . . . .216

5-7. Purpose, condition, opposition, &c 21 7

8. Attendant circumstances . . . . . .218

Notes 1 -5. Adverbs, &c. with Part, of § 109 . 218-221

N. 7. (a.) Partic. in Rel. or Interrog. sentences . 221

(b.) Ti padav ; Ti nadav ; wherefore? . . 221,222

§ 110, 1. Genitive Absolute 222

2. Accusative Absolute . . . . . .224

§ 111. Gen. or Accus. Absol. and ordinary Partic. combined 225
§ 112. Participle with verbs (like Infinitive) : —

1. With verbs signifying to begin, to cease, &c. . . 226

2. With Siarikea, \avddva>, rvyxdvco, <f>ddv<o, &c. . . 227
§ 113. Partic. in indirect discourse (after verbs signifying to see,

to perceive, to know, &c.) . . . . . .229

N. 1. Participle with br/Xos ((pavepos) dpi . . . 230

N. 6. Participle with avvoiha and crvyyiyvooo-Ka . . 230

N. 10. 'Qs with these Participles . ' . . 231, 232

CHAPTER VII.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES IN -riot.

§ 114. Two constructions of the Verbal in -re'oj : —

1. Personal construction 233

2. Impersonal construction .... 233, 234

Appendix L 235

Appendix II 240

Index to Examples 243

English Index , 257

Greex Index. 261

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE MOODS.

§ 1. The Greek verb has five Moods, the Indicative,
Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, and Infinitive. The
first four, as opposed to the Infinitive, are called finite
moods.

§ 2. The Indicative is used in simple, absolute as-
sertions; as 7/oa0ei, he writes; eypatyev, he wrote; ypayfrei,
he ivill write ; yey pacpev, he has written.

The Indicative is used also to express various other
relations, which the following examples will illus-
trate : —

Ei toiito aiXtjde's i <rr t, x<ilpa>, if this is true, I rejoice. El eypa^ei/,
rj\dovav,ifhe had written, I should have come. El toiito it o i r\ a e i,
Kaka>s e£ei, if he shall do this, it icill be well. 'EmpeXelTai oiras tovto
yevr)o-€Tai, he takes care that this shall happen. EWe pe eKTeivas,
a>t ixrjTTOTe tovto e it o l T) a a, 0 that thou hadst killed me, that I might
never have done this ! EWe tovto aknOes rjv, 0 that this were true.
Aeyei cos tovto aXrjdes eo-riv, he says that this is true. Einev on tovto
7rpa£ei, he said that he would do this. 'Epwra ri ey pd^rapev, he
asks what we wrote.

These constructions will be explained in Chapter IV. They are
sufficient to show the impossibility of including all the uses of the
Indicative in one definition. Any definition which is to include
these must be comprehensive enough to include even the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive in Latin ; for el eypa^rev, rfkOov av is
equivalent to si scripsisset, venissem. It would be equally impossible
to give a single definition sufficiently precise to be of any use in
practice, including all the uses of the Subjunctive or Optative.

§ 3. The various uses of the Subjunctive — in
clauses denoting a purpose or object, after iva, pr), &c. ;
in conditional, relative, and temporal sentences ; and

2 GENERAL VI^W OF THE MOODS. [§ 3

m certain independent sentences — may be seen by the

following examples : —

"Epxerai Iva tovto i'S??, he is coming that he may see this. <J>o£ftrai
iir) tovto yevrjrui, he fears lest this may happen. 'Eav rodro iroulv
pJoiXijrai, 8vvr)*cTai, if he shall wish to do this, he trill be able.
"O ti h> iroiclv ? o v X r) t a t bvvfrfTcu, whatever he shall wish to do he wdl
be able {to do). 'Edi/ rt iroidv j3ovXrjTai, tovto ttou'i, if he (ever)
wishes to do anything, he (always) does it. "O ti av iroitiv fiovXrjTat
iroiel, whatever he wishes (at any time) to do he (always) does. "Orav
tovto iroieiv fiovXnTai, Su^o-erm, when he shall wish to do this, he
will be able. "Otov iroitiv ti ftovXrjTai, iroiel, whenever he wishes to
do anything, he (always) does it. "l a p e v, let us go . Mrj davudanTe,
do not wonder. Ov jut) tovto yevnrai, this will (surely) not happen.
Ti « 1 it Co ; what shall I say f

§ 4. The various uses of the Optative — in clauses
denoting a purpose or object after Iva, /xr), &c. ; in con-
ditional, relative, and temporal sentences ; in indirect
quotations and questions ; and in independent sentences
(in apodosis with av, or in expressions of a wish) —
may be seen by the following examples : —

*KXdev "iva tovto i'Soi, he came that he might see this. 'Eqjofte'iTo v-f)
tovto yevoiro, he feared lest this might happen. Et tovto iroieiv
fioiXoiTo, bvvaiT av,ifhe should wish to do this, he would be able.
"O ti noieiv PovXolto 8 iva it av, whatever he should wish to do, he
would be able (to do). Et ti rroieiv /3ouXotro, tovt eno'iei, if he
(ever) wished to do anything, he (always) did it "O n iroieiv
PovXoito eiroiei, whatever he wished (at anytime) to do he (always)
did. "Ore tovto iroieiv $ovXoito, hvvaiT av, whenever he should
wish to do this, he would be able. "Ore iroieiv rt /3otJXotro, eiroiei,
whenever he wished to do anything, he (always) did it. Eiirev on tovto
iroioirj, he said that he was doing this. Ewe v on tovto iroifjoeiev,
he said thai he had done this. Einev on tovto iroirjcoi, he said, that
he would do this. 'Hpwrcov ti no to in (it o t f/ o- e t e v or it o t f) a o t), they
asked ivhat he was doing (had done, or would do).

Avvair av tovto iroieiv, he would be able to do this. E*6e aij tovto
irdo-xoiev, 0 that they may not suffer these things! 'AitoXoito,
may he perish ! M17 tovto yevoiro, may this not happen !

Note. For a discussion of the relation of the Optative to the
Subjunctive, see Appendix.

§ 5. The Imperative is used to express a command,
exhortation, entreaty, or prohibition.

§ 6. The Infinitive expresses the simple idea of the

§ 9.J USE OP THE TENSES. 3

verb without restriction of person or number, and may
be considered as a verbal noun with many attributes of
a verb.

§ 7. To the Moods may be added the Participle,
and the Verbal in -Te'o<? or -reov. Both are verbal ad-
jectives.

CHAPTER II.

USE OF THE TENSES.

§ 8. 1. There are seven Tenses, — the Present, Im-
perfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, Aorist, Future, and Future
Perfect. The Imperfect and Pluperfect occur only in
the Indicative ; the Futures are wanting in the Sub-
junctive and Imperative.

2. These tenses are divided into primary and second-
ary ; the primary tenses being those which refer to pres-
ent or future time, and the secondary being those which
refer to past time.

The primary tenses of the Indicative are the Present,
Perfect, Future, and Future Perfect. The secondary
tenses are the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist.

Note. This distinction will be more fully explained at the end
of this chapter, §§ 31-35.

§ 9. In speaking of the time denoted by any verb, we must
distinguish between time which is present, past, or future with
reference to the time of the speaker or writer (that is, time
absolutely present, &c.), and time which is present, past, or
future with reference to the time of some other verb with which
the verb in question 13 connected (that is, time relatively pres-
ent, &c). Thu3, when we say rovro 6Xr]6es eartv, this is true,
iorw denotes time present with reference to the time of speak-

4 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 9.

ing : but when we say ?Xf£e tovto aX^ey eivai, or eheljev on. tovto
d\r]des to-riv (or el'?;), he said that this was true (1. e. he said
(ithis is true "), we use the Present tense ; but this tense here
denotes time present with reference to the time of the leading
verb, ?Xf£t, or time absolutely past and only relatively present.
The same distinction is seen between the Future in tovto
yevrjo-erai, this will happen, and in ?Xe|e tovto yeuijo-fo-dai or oti
y€vf)o-€Tat (yevqo-otTo), he said thai this would happen ; where the
Future in the first case denotes time absolutely future, in the
other cases time only relatively future, which may even be
absolutely past. Again, in tovto eyevero, this happened, the
Aorist is absolutely past ; but in e\e£e tovto yeveo-dai, or ?Xe£«»
oti tovto iyeveTo (or yevoiTo), he said that this had happened, it
denotes time past with reference to the time of eXe£ei>, which
makes it doubly past.

It is to be noticed as a special distinction between the Greek
and English idioms, that the Greek oftener uses its tenses to
denote merely relative time. Thus, in the examples given
above, we translate the Greek Presents elvai and ko-Ti after
?Xe£e by our Imperfect was ; the Futures yevrjo-eo-dai and ycvri-
orrat by would happen ; and the Aorists ycveo-0ai and iyivero by
had happened. This principle is especially observed in the
Indicative, Optative, and Infinitive in indirect quotations ; in
final and object clauses after ha, onus, &c. ; and usually in the
Participle.

Present and Imperfect.

A. In the Indicative.

§ 10. 1. The Present Indicative represents an action
as going on now ; as ypatyco, I write, or lam writing.

Remark. A single important exception occurs when the Present
Indicative in indirect discourse denotes time present relatively t«
the leading verb. See above, § 9 ; and § 70, 2.

Note 1. As the limits of such an action on either side of
the present moment are not defined, the Present may express
a customary or repeated action, or a general truth. E. g.

§ 10 L] PRESENT INDICATIVE. 5

nXoiof els Ar)\ov 'Adrjvaioi it e p, it o v <r iv , the Athenians send a ship
to Delos {every year). Plat. Phaed. 58 A. Turei toi K6pos vfipiv,
nrav icana oXfios envrai, satiety begets insolence, whenever prosperity
follows the wicked. Theogn. 153. 'Ev XP°V<? anocpd ivet rb rdpfios
dvdpamoicnv. Aesch. Agam. 857.

Note 2. The Present denotes merely the continuance of
an action, without reference to its completion : sometimes, how-
ever, it is directly implied by the context that the action is not
to be completed, so that the Present denotes an attempted ac-
tion. Especially, didapt, in the sense I offer, and ireida, I try
to persuade, are used in this sense. E. g.

NOj/ fi' apa t avTLKa ttoXXo. Si Sot, he offers many things. D. IX,
519. lie i 8 ov o~ i iipas evavria kcu rots vopois Ka\ t<o cukcim \fsT)(pl(ra-
<rdai, they are trying to persuade you to vote contrary both to the laws
and to justice. Isae. de Cleon. Hered. § 26.

This signification is much more common in the Imperfect. See
§ 11, X. 2, and the examples.

Note 3. The Present is often used with expressions denot-
ing past time, especially irdXai, in the sense of a Perfect and
Present combined. E. g.

Kelvov I x v e v co irdXai, I have been tracking him a long time (and
still continue it). Soph. Aj. 20. Ov irdXai croi Xeyco on rairov (prjpi
eivat ; i. e. have I not long ago told you, (and do J not still repeat,)
that I call it the same thing ? Plat. Gorg. 489 C. So UoXi/v xP°v0V

TOVTO IT ota.

So in Latin, Jam dudum loquor.

Note 4. The Presents tjko>, I am come, and o"x°H-at, I am
gone, are used in the sense of the Perfect. An approach to
the signification of the Perfect is sometimes found in such
Presents as cpevyco, in the sense I am banished, aXio-Kopai, lam
captured, ct/cdw and Kparea, lam victorious, tjrrdopai, I am con-
quered, dSiKe'a>, I have been unjust (lam &8ikos). So Ua> and
iKava) in Homer, with oXXvp.cn and similar verbs and sometimes
TtKT<» in the Tragedians. E. g.

QepioTOKXrjs tJk(o napa ere, /, Themistocles,am come to thee. Thuc.
I, 137. Oixerai eit aXa t)iav, he is gone to the divine sea. H. XV,
223. 'iXiov aXicTKopevov, Ilium having been captured. Thuc VI, 2.
So Hdt. I, 85. Et irdvra ravra eXvpaivero rols bXois, eu>s dverpeyj/e,
ri Arjpocrdevrjt ddticei; Dem. Cor. 327, 1. Ilvpycov 6XX v p. e vu> v iv\
vavalv efiav, I embarked after the towers had been destroyed. Eur. Iph.
T. 1108. So dvoiyopevns tivpns, Hdt. I, 9. *HS« tLktci <re, ihii
woman it thy mother. Eur. Ion. 1560.

6 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 10, 1

Note 5. The Greek, like other languages, often allows the

use of the Present of such verbs as I hear, I learn, I say, ezen

when their action is strictly finished before the moment at

which they are used. E. g.

Ot 2iKe\io)Tai oraatdCovcnv, d>? irvvBavo fie da, the Sicilians are at
discord, as we learn. Thug. VI, 16. 'E7rl noXets, its eyco aKojj
alaOdvo pai, p&XXoptv lepat peydXas. Thuc. VI, 20.

Note 6. The Present «/xt, / am going, through all its
moods, is used like a Future. Its compounds are sometimes
used in the same sense. (The Poets, especially Homer, some-
times use tifii as a Present.) E. g.

2eC vorepos e ip vno yaiav, I shall go. H. XV 111, 333. E ipi 7rdXiv
«r f'«iw, / shall recur to that. Plat. Phaed. 100 B. *AXX' el<reifit,
ctov 8' ov (ppovriS). Arist. Nub. 125. *Q (piX\ e-yw pkv aireipi, o~vas
Kal Kiva <pvXd&v. Od. XVII, 593.^

(As Present.) Ofos 8* dor^p etcri per dcrrpa'cri wktos dpoXym,
as a star moves, &c. H. XXII, 317.

Note 7. In animated language the Present often refers to
the future, to express likelihood, intention, or danger. E. g.

Meuopev eW av Zkckttoi Kara, iroXeis Xn<f>8aipei> ; shall toe wait}
Thuc VI. 77. Ei 8e (prjo-iv ovtos, 8ei£drw, Kayio Kara/Haiva, and
I will take any seat. Dem. F. L. 351, 4. 2v ei 6 epxdpevos, fj Irtpov
npoaooKcopev; art thou he that should come, or do we look for
another f Matth. Evang. XI, 3. 'AiroXXvpat, / shall perish.
(See §17, N. 6.)

2. The Present is often used in narration for the
Aorist, to give a more lively statement of a past event.
This is called the Historic Present. E. g.

BovXiji' e7TiTexvarai onccs pr) dXicr#eiei> y hOnvaioi, he contrives a
plan to prevent the Athenians from collecting. Hdt. I, 63. KeXedet
jrtp-yj/ai avbpas • . • . • an opt eXXov a iv ovv, ko\ nepi avrcov o
Qr]pio-TOK\r)s KpvCpa ire pure t. ThUC. I, 91. Aaptiov icai Ylapvo-a.Ti.bos
naldes y iyvovrai ovo. Xen, An. I, 1, 1.

Note. The Historic Present is not found in Homer.

§11. The Imperfect represents an action as going
on in past time ; as eypafov, J was writing.

Note 1. The Imperfect is thus a Present transferred to
the past, and it retains all the peculiarities of the Present

§ 11.] IMPERFECT. 7

which are not inconsistent with the change to past time. Thus
the Imperfect denotes customary or repeated action, as opposed
to the Aorist, which denotes the simple occurrence of an action.
(See § 19, N. 2.) E. g.

'E7rt KeKponos 17 \TTiKrj Kara noXeis (ok(Ito,ko\ ov £vvjjfo~av
fiovXevaopLevoi. dXX' avroi eKacrroi cttoXit ev ovto kcu e/3ouXev-
ovto. 'E7m8i7 Se Orjaevs e j3 acr LXe v a e v , es rrjv vvv noXiv ovaav
gvv<0Ki<re mivras. Tnuc. II, 15. (Here the Imperfects refer to
the state of the country or the customs, the Aorists to single actions ;
t'/3ao-(Xeucre, became king, ^vucSkktc, collected into one state.)

Note 2. The Imperfect, like the Present (§ 10, N. 2),
sometimes denotes attempted action, being in this case strictly
an Imperfect tense. So especially £8i8ow and enetOov. E. g.

<ti\iiT7TOi 'hXovvncrov e8i8ov, Philip offered Halonnesus (lit. tried
to give it). AESCH. Cor. § 83. "Ekckttos eneidzv avrbv viroa-r^vai
tt)v apxrjv, each one tried to persuade him to undertake the command.
Xen. An. VI, 1, 19. Kvpaio-TaT deipopevov, Kara 8' rjpee HnXeicova,
and was about to overpower the son of Peleus. II. XXI, 327. 'Epi-
a-8 ovto nap' ovk etcdibovTos ti)v avXrjv, he tried to hire the yard of one
who refused to let it. Hdt. I, 68. He'p\j/avres is 2dp8is \pvo-bv
uveovTo, they wanted to buy gold. Hdt. 1,69. 'EireBvpncre ttjs
xXavidos, kcii avTTjv TrpoaeXOav avecro, he tried to buy it. Hdt. HI,
139. *A eTTpdo-aero ovk eyevero, what was attempted did not
happen. Tnuc. VI, 74. So irpoo-iTiQei, she wanted to add. Arist.
Nub. 63.

Note 3. When the Present has the force of the Perfect
(§ 10, 1, N. 4), the Imperfect has regularly the force of a Plu-
perfect. (See § 17, N. 3). E. g.

'O 6'xAos Kara deav ^Kfn, the crowd were come to look on. Thuc.
VI, 31. 'Ettci coxeo vyi IlvXovSe, after thou wast gone by ship to
Pylos. Od. XVI,' 24.

Note 4. The Imperfect sometimes denotes likelihood, in-
tention, or danger in past time. (See § 10, 1, N. 7.) E. g.

'E7r«ri8i7 r<5 ■^■evbeo-dai. aTraXXvTO, when tie was on the point of
ruin through his deceit. Antiphox. de Caed. Herod. § 37. Kal Tap!
e6vrfo-Ke t4kv, diruXXv p.r\v 8' iya>, and my children were about to
die, and I was about to perish. Eur. Here. F. 538.

Note 5. The Imperfect is sometimes founrl in simple narration,
where the Aorist would be expected, especially in Homer. The
meaning of the verb often makes it indifferent which of the two ia
used. Thus [iaivov and /3q are used without any perceptible differ-
ence in II. I, 437, 439; so /3dXXero and /3dXero, II, 43, 45; 6rj<(u
and Tidfi, XXIII. 653, 656 ; duice and 8i8ov, VII, 303, 305 ; tXarev and
Xei7re, II, 106, 107; compare also picrTvXXov and atiTr\o-av, I, 465, 466.

8 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 11.

Herodotus and Thucydides use eXeyov and oceAeuov as Aorists.
Compare eXtyov, Thuc I, 72, with einov and e'Ae£e, I, 79.

Note 6. The Imperfect sometimes expresses a fact, which is
either the result of a previous discussion, or one that is just recog-
nized as a fact by the speaker or writer, having previously be-in
denied, overlooked, or misunderstood. In the latter case, the
particle apa is often joined to the verb. E. g.

*Q ttottoi, ovk apa iravra vor)uoves ov8e biKaioi r)aav <&air)Ka>v r)yit-
ropes r)8e uibovres, i- e. they are not, as I once imagined. Od. ~KLil,
209. Ovk apa povvov 'inv ipi8a>v yevos, dXX' eirl yaiav elo~\ 8va>, there
is not after all merely one race of discords, but there are tioo on earth.
Hes. Op. 1. "OS' tjv apa 6 £vXXai3a)u p.e, this is then the one who
seized me. Soph. Phil. 978. Ov aii p.6vos up' r)o-6' eVo^; are
you not then the only epops (as I thought) ? A hist. Av. 280. *Hj> ^
povariKrj avTLO-Tpo(pos rr)s yvp.vaaTiKr)s, el ptp.vrjaat, music then (as we
proved) corresponds to gymnastics. Plat. Rep. VII, 522 A. At-
aCpdepovpev eKfivo, b ra pev 8i.Kaia> fieXrtov iyiyvero, ra> 8e a8iK<a
a7rcoXXuro, we shall destroy that which (as ice proved) becomes better
by justice and is ruined by injustice. Plat. Crit. 4 7 D. *Ap' ov r68t
t)v to 8ev8pou, e<£' orrep rjyes fjpas ; is not thvs after all the tree to
which you were bringing us f Plat. Phaedr. 230 A.

Note 7. The Greek sometimes uses an idiom like the English
he was the one who did it for he is the one mho did it : as rjv o rr)v
yviiprjv ravTrjv elncov TLeicravSpos, TlITJC. VIII, 68 ; tls rjv 6 fiorjdrjcras
Toh BvCavriois ku\ o-ao-as avTovs ; Dem. Cor. 255, 2. (See Note 6.)

B. The Present in the Dependent Moods.

Remark. The distinction of time which marks the Present
and Aorist in the Indicative is retained in the Optative and
Infinitive of indirect discourse, and usually in the Participles.

But in all other constructions, this distinction of time dis-
appears in the dependent moods, and the Present and Aorist
differ only in this, that the Present denotes a continued or
repeated action, while the Aorist denotes the simple occurrence
of an action, the time being determined by the construction.
In these cases the Present and Aorist are the tenses chiefly
used ; the Perfect is seldom required (§ 18, 1, N.), and the
Future is exceptional (§ 27, Notes). It must be remembered
that the Greek distinction between the Present and Aorist in
the Subjunctive and Optative is one which the Latin could not
express ; the Present, for example, being the only form found
in the Latin Subjunctive to express a condition which the
Greek can express by the Present or Aorist Optative, and some-
times by the Present or Aorist Subjunctive, each with some

§ 12.] PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE- 9

peculiar moaning. Thus el tovto iroioin, if he should do this
[habitually), el iroir)a-eie, (simply) if he should do this, and
somefimes eav tovto woifj (or n o i rj a y) , if he {ever) does this,
may each be translated by si hoc facial.

This distinction, although in general strictly observed, was
Bome times neglected even by the best authors : we occasionally
find, for example, the Present Subjunctive where the Aorist
would have expressed the idea more exactly, and vice versa.
In other examples the two seem to be used in nearly the same
sense. (See Xen. Cyr. V, 5, 13.) These are to be considered
merely as exceptions ; when, however, the Aorist is wanting,
as in elfii, the Present regularly takes the place of both.

§ 12. The Present Subjunctive denotes a continued
or repeated action, the time of which is determined as
follows : —

(a.) In clauses denoting a purpose after %va, oVta?,
&c, or the object of fear after /j>v, it refers to time fu-
ture relatively to that of the leading verb.

(6.) In conditional sentences, — in ordinary protasis
(§ 50, 1), the Subjunctive refers simply to the future ;
if the supposition is general (depending on a verb of
present time which expresses a repeated action or a
general truth), the Subjunctive is indefinite in its time,
but is expressed in English by the Present. This ap-
plies also to all conditional relative and temporal sen-
tences.

(<?.) In independent sentences (in exhortations, pro-
hibitions, questions of doubt, &c.) the Subjunctive
refers to the future. E. g.

(a.) AoKei uoi KaTaKavaai raff dud£as, Iva uf] to. {evyrj jj/xoji/ o~Tpa-
TTjyrj, aXXa tto pev a fie da otttj av rfj aTpiiTia avp.<pe py, it seems
good to me to burn the wagons, that our beasts of burden may not be
iur generals, and that ice may go on whi titer soever it may be best for
tlie army. Xen. An. HI, 2, 27. Kcu yap fiao-iXevs alpeirai, ovx Iva
iavrov Kakcjs eiriaeXrjTai, dXX' Iva Ka\ ol e\6p.evoi Si avrov ev
irpa.TTcoo-t. Xen. Mem. Ill, 2, 3.

(6.) *Av 8e T« avdio-TTJTai, ireipao~6ue6a xfipov<r#a<, but if any
one shall stand opposed to us, we will try to subdue him. Xen. An»
1*

10 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 12.

VII, 3, 11. Kav noXepos 77, ecus av «V aWov e'xwpev (TTpaTtv«rdai,
aov re kai t<ov aa>v dcpet-opeda, and if there shall be ivar, so long as we
shall be able. &c. Id. Hell. IV, 1, 38. 'AXX' rj av yiyvwo-Kco /3eXrt-
<rra e'pdi, but I will speak as I shall think best. Tfiuc. VI, 9. Ovs av
8ovXrj TroiT]<Ta&dai (piXovs, dyadov ri Xeye nep\ avrav 717369 tovs dnay-
yeXXovras, whomsoever you shall wish, &c. Isoc. Demon, p. 9 C. § 33.
*A7raff Xoyoj, av aivf) to. npaypara, pa.Tat.6v rt (paiverat Ka\ Kevdv, all
speech, if (wherever) ckfds are wanting, appears vain and useless. Dem.
01. II, 21, 20. 'Evppaxe'iv rovTois edeXovaiv airavres, ovs av 6 pa at
Trapfo-Ktvaapevovs, all are willing to be allied to those whom they see
prepared. Id. Phil. I, 42, 1.

(c.) He 18 d> pe da navres' (pevyco pev o~vv vr)vo\ (f)i\rjv es Trarpiha
yalav, let us all be persuaded ; let us fly, &c. H. II, 139. Tt (pa ; ri
8pa; what shall I say? what shall I do? Hcbs ovv irep\ tovtw
jroiw/xev; how then shall we act about this? Plat. Phileb. 63 A.

See other examples under the rules in Chapter IV.

§ 13. 1. The Present Optative, "when it is not in
indirect discourse, denotes a continued or repeated ac-
tion, the time of which is determined as follows : —

(a.) In clauses denoting a purpose after iva, o7r&j?,
Ac, or the object of fear after py, it refers to time fu-
ture relatively to that of the leading verb.

(6.) In conditional sentences, — in ordinary protasis
(§ 50, 2), the Optative refers to the future (only more
vaguely than the Subjunctive) ; if the supposition is
general (depending on a verb of past time which ex-
presses a repeated action or general truth), the Optative
refers to indefinite past time. This applies also to all
conditional relative and temporal sentences.

(c.) In independent sentences (that is, in expressions
of a wish, and in Apodosis with av) the Optative refers
to the future. E. g.

(a.) Tovtov enedvpei, Iva ev irparroi, he desired this in order thai
he might be in prosperity. 'Ecpodelro prj tovto iroio'tev, he feared lest
they should do this (habitually). ArjXos rjv emdvpaiv apx*lv-> onws 7rX«»u
XapBdvoi. emdvpcov 8e ripdadai, Iva 7rXei'co <e pbaivoi' <f)iXos Tt
ffiovXtTo eivai Tols peyicTa dvvapevois, Iva ddiKcov prj 818011) SiKrjv.
Xex. An. II, 6, 21. (Here the Aorist Optative would have re-
ferred to single acts of receiving, getting gain, and suffering punish-
ment, while the piesent refers to a succession of cases, and to a whole
course of conduct.)

§ 13, 2.J PRESENT OPTATIVE. 11

(b.) Ov yap av eiraivoit) pe, el e'£eXau vo ijjli tovs evepyeras,
for he would not praise me, if I should banish my benefactors. Xen.
An. VII, 7, 11. Etijf <popr)Tos ovk av, el rrpdaaois koXqjs, you would
not be endurable, if you should be in prosperity {at any time). Aesch.
Prom. 979. lias yap av ns, a ye pr) eV i crrairo, ravra ao(pos eii] ;
for how could any one be wise in that which he did not understand ?
(i. e. e'l Tiva pi) e'lrio-rairo ■) Xen. Mem. IV, 6, 7. 'AXX' e'L n pi)
fpepoipev, corpvvev (pepeiv, but if we neglected to bring anything, he
always exhorted us to bring it. Eur. Ale. 755. Oi>k diTe'kel-rrero en
avrov, el pr) n avayKalov e'irj, he never left him, unless there was some
necessity for it. Xex. Mem. IV, 2, 40. 'Onore Evayopav opcoev,
i'(po(3oivTo, whenever they saw Evagoras, they were afraid. Isoc. Evag.
193 D. § 24.

(c.) Eide rovro etrj (utinam sit), 0 that this may be. YliBe p,r\
ravra ird<rxoiev, may they not suffer these things (habit tally). But
eide pr) nddoiev, may tnry not suffer (in a single case). See examples
of Apodosis with av above, under (b).

See other examples under the rules in Chapter IV.

2. In indirect quotations and questions, each tense
of the Optative denotes the same time, relatively to the
leading verb, which the tense (of any mood) which it
represents denoted in the direct discourse. (See § 69, 1.)

(a.) If therefore the Present Optative represents a
Present Indicative of the direct discourse, it denotes a
continued or repeated action, contemporary with that of
the leading verb (that is, relatively present). E. g.

UepiKkrjs nporjyopeve, on 'Apx^apos ol £evos e'lr), Pericles an-
nounced that Archidamus ivas his friend (i. e. he said £evos po'i eanv).
Thuc. II, 13. "Eyvacrav on. Kevos 6 (pofios e'ii), they learned that their
fear ivas groundless (i. e. they learned Kevos eo-TLv). Xen. An. II, 2,
21. 'Enwddvero el oIkoIto r) x^Pai ^ie osked whether the country was
inhabited (i. e. he asked the question, Is the country inhabited?). Xen.
Cyr. IV, 4, 4.

(5.) But if it represents a Present Subjunctive of the
direct discourse, it denotes a continued or repeated
action, which is future with reference to the leading
verb. E. g.

KXf apxps efiovkevero, el ire prroiev nvas tj irdvres lotev, Clear-
chus was deliberating whether they should send a few, or should all
go. Xen. An. I. 10, 5. (The question was, ire uirvpev nvas fj
rrdvres lapev; shall we send a few, or shall we all cof See § 38.)

Remark. Examples of the Present Optative representing the

12 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 13, 2.

Present Indicative or Subjunctive in a dependent clause of the
direct disco rrse, to which the same principles apply, may be found
under § 74, 1.

Note 1. It will be seen, by a comparison of the examples
under («) and (b), that an ambiguity may sometimes arise from
uncertainty whether the Optative stands for the Present In-
dicative or for the Present Subjunctive in a question of doubt
(§ 88). Thus fjyvoovu o ti noiolfp might mean they knew not
what they were doing (the Optative representing ti iroiovfiev ;
what are we doing ?) or they knew not what to do (the Optative
representing n 7roi<op.€v ; what shall we do ?). The context
must decide in each case. See § 71.

Note 2. In the few instances in which the Present Optative in
indirect quotations represents the Imperfect of the direct discourse,
it of course denotes time past relatively to the leading verb. See
§ 70, 2, N. 1 (b).

§ 14. The Present Imperative refers to a continued
or repeated action in future time ; as <p€vye, begone ;
'Xaipovroav, let them rejoice ; f^w vofMc^ere, do not believe.

§15. The Present Infinitive has three distinct
uses : —

1. First, in its ordinary use (either with or without
the article), whenever it is not in indirect discourse, it
denotes a continued or repeated action without regard to
time, unless its time is specially denned by the context.
E.g.

"E^eon p.kveiv, it is possible to remain. 'E^ecrrat tovto irotetv, it will
be possible to do this. Aeopai v/xcov peveiv, I beg you to remain. Tt
to kco\vov er avrov eo-rai fiabi£e iv otvol (3ov\erai, what will there be
to prevent him from going whither he pleases? Dem. 01. I, 12, 22.
'ExeXf vo-a avrov tovto iroielv, I commanded him to do this. 'E/3ov-
\ero ao<p6s e ivai, he wished to be wise. Aetvdy eort \kyeiv,he is skilled
in speaking. "Slpa fiab'i£etv, it is time to be gov \g. Yldv noiovaiv,
coo-re 81*171' 7,17) SiSovai, they do everything, so as to avoid being
punished. Plat. <^org. 479 C. To p.ev ovv en it ip.av'lo-u>s (pfjorai tu
iiv paBiov eivai, to 8' 0 ti 8ei tt pdrreiv dirocpaiv e o~6 at , toxjt ftVat
o-vfjLfiovXov, some one may say that finding fault is easy, but that
showing what ought to be done is the duty of an adviser. Dem. 01. I,
13, 27. (Here irirtpdv, airo^aivto-Oai, and Trpdrreiv belong under
this rule; tlvai in both cases belongs under § 15, 2.) ()£ 7rXeo»

§ 15, 2.] PRESENT INFINITIVE. 13

vet-las ZvtKfv tovt eirpa^ev, dX\a r<5 ducaiorrpa tov? Q-qftaiois rj vpas
d£iovv, he did this not from love of gain, but because of the Thebans
making juster demands than you. Dem. Phil. II, 69, 6. 'Ereix'to-dy
fie AraXduri] vrjo-os, rou prj Xvcrrds KaKovpyeiv tt]v Evfioiav, in order to
prevent pirates from ravaging Euboea. Tnuc. II, 32.

Remark. The Infinitive in this its ordinary use has usually no
more reference to time than any verbal noun, and the distinction of
tense therefore disappears, the Present differing from the Aorist
only by expressing a continued or repeated action. An Infinitive
which ire itself has no reference to time may, however, be referred
to some particular time, like any other verbal noun, by the verb on
which it depends, by some particle like coo-re or nplv, or by some
other word in the sentence. Thus cSo-re denoting a purpose refers
the Infinitive to the future : the Infinitive without a>ore expressing
a purpose is likewise future. After a large class of verbs, as those
of commanding, advising, desiring, asking, &c, whose signification
points to the future, the Infinitive necessarily denotes relative future
time. (For an irregular use of the Future Infinitive after such
verbs, see § 27, N. 2.) The time denoted by the Infinitive in any
of these constructions must be carefully distinguished from that
which it denotes in indirect discourse (§ 15, 2), where its tense is
fully preserved.

Note 1. For a discussion of the Infinitive with the article and
a subject, with reference to its time, see Appendix, II.

Note 2. Xpdco, dvaipeco, 8ecmi£<0, and other verbs signifying to
give an oracular response, are sometimes followed by the Present (as
well as the Aorist) Infinitive, where we might expect the Future on
the principle of indirect discourse (§ 15, 2, N. 1). These verbs here
take the ordinary construction of verbs of commanding, advising, and
warning. E. g.

Aeyerat fie 'A\Kfiala>vi tov 'Ajto'XXco ravrnv ttju yt)v xpi]<™ oIk(1v,
it is said that Apollo gave a response to Alcmaeon that he should in-
habit this land. Thtjc. II, 102. The Future is sometimes found.
For the Aorist, see § 23, 1, N. 2.

2. Secondly, the Present Infinitive in indirect dis-
course is used to represent a Present Indicative of the
direct discourse, and therefore denotes a continued or
repeated action, which is contemporary with that of the
leading verb, that is, relatively present. E. g.

&tj<t\ y pd(pe iv, he says thai he is writing; e<pn ypdcpeiv, he said
that he was writing (i. e. he said " I am icriting") ; (j)f]crei ypdcpeiv,
he will say that he is (then) writing. 'AppcocrTfiv TTpo<pacrL£cTai, he
pretends that he is sick. 'E£co/xocrei/ dppuxrreiv tovtovL, he took his
oath that this man was sick. Dem. F. L. 379, 15 and 17. Ovk tcprf
airos dXX' eKiivov <tt paTT)yflv, he said that not he himself, but Nicias,

14 USE OP THE TENSES. [§ 15, 2

was genera- , i. e. he said, ovk e'ya> avrbs aXX' (Ktlvof a-Tparny ft
Thuc. IV, 28. For the Present Infinitive with av (not included
here), see § 41.

Note 1. The Infinitive is said to stand in indirect discourse, with
its tenses thus corresponding to the same tenses of the Indicatives
only when it depends upon verbs implying thought or the expression
of thought {verba sentiendi et declarandi), and when also the thought,
as originally conceived, would have been expressed by some tense
of the Indicative, which the corresponding tense of the Infinitive
can represent. Thus verbs of commanding, wishing, and others
enumerated in § 92, 1, although they may imply thought, yet never
introduce an indirect quotation in the sense here intended, as an
Infinitive after them never stands for an Indicative, but is merelj
the ordinary Infinitive used as a verbal noun, without any definite
time. See § 73, 1, Remark; where the principle is stated in full,
so as to include all the tenses and the Infinitive with av.

Note 2. Verbs and expressions signifying to hope, to expect, to
promise, and the like, after which the Future Infinitive stands
regularly in indirect discourse (as representing a Future Indicative
of the direct discourse), sometimes take the Present or the Aorist
Infinitive. E. g.

'Q/ioXo'yety icad' i)uCir iro\iT( v e o-dai , you agreed to live according
to us {the laws). Plat. Crit. 52 C. Svvidov iroXiTeveadai. Id.
52 D. Tlpoaayaycov eyyvrjTcis n p.rjv tt o pev e cr 8 ai , having giving
securities that he ivould go. Xex. Cyr. VI, 2, 39. 'EXni^ei dvvaros
elvai apxeiv, he hopes to be able to rule. Plat. Rep. IX, 573 C.
(But in Hdt. I, 30, e'X7ri'£W dvai oA/3ta>raro? eVeipcora, means, he
asked, trusting that he was, elvai being a regular Present Infinitive of
indirect discourse. So I. 22, eXni^oov . ... elvai kcl\ t6v \eoov rerpv-
<r8ai..)

In these cases the Infinitive seems to be used nearly as in § 15,

1, without regard to time. The Greek makes no more distinction
than the English between £\wi£ei tovto iroie'iv, he hopes to do this,
and €\ni£ei tovto iroirjaeiv, he hopes that he shall do this. Compare
(papev tovtov lopokoynnivai TavTa iroirjO' e iv with (pd&Kovres ere ap-oXo-
yrjKtvai it oX it ev e a Q ai . Plat. Crit. 51 E and 52 D. The Future,
however, is the regular form (§ 27, N. 3). For the Aorist, see § 23,

2, N. 2.

Note 3. Even verbs of saying and thinking, — as Xeyw, when it
signifies to command, and Soicel, it seems good, — may be followed by
the ordinary Infinitive of § 15, 1, referring to the future. EIttov is
very seldom followed by the Infinitive, except when it signifies to
command. (See § 92, 2, N. 1.) The context must distinguish these
;ases from indirect quotations. E. g.

Tovtols eXtytv ir'be'iv, I told them to sail. Dem. F. L. 388, 4.
'Tovrovf IXfyoi/ ir\ttv would mean I said that they were sailing.)
Elniov p.T]&va tt a pie v a t ds ttjv aKpono\iv, having given orders that no

§ 15, 3.] PRESENT INFINITIVE AS IMPERFECT. 15

one should pass into the citadel. Xen. Hell. V, 2, 29. Ao«ei 'npiv tovto
it ok tv, it pleases us io do this. (But boKt't pot vpda tovto noie'tv
moans it seems to me that you are doing this, by § 15, 2.) *E8o£e
in the sense it was resolved, introducing a resolution or enactment, is
followed by the Present or Aorist (not Future) Infinitive.

3. Thirdly, the Present Infinitive belongs also to the
Imperfect, and is used in indirect discourse xo repre-
sent an Imperfect Indicative of the direct discourse.
It here denotes continued or repeated action which is
past with reference to the leading verb, thus supplying
the want of an Imperfect Infinitive. E. g.

Tivas ovv (v\as viroXapfiaveT ev)(eo~dai tov $'Cknrirov or to-atv-
b(v ; what prayers then do you suppose Philip made when he was pour-
ing the libations? Dem. F. L. 3S1, 10. (Here the temporal clause
ot Zantvdev shows the past time denoted by evxevdai.) riorep' o'Ucrde
nAeov Qoxeas Qrjftalcov rj <&i\irmov vpcov Kpareiv tco noKefia); do
you think that the superiority of the Phocians over the Thebans, or that
of Philip over you, was the greater in the war (the war being then
past) ? Dem. F. L. 387, 6. (Here the direct discourse would be
iKpaTiwv and enpaTei-) IIa>? yap o'UcrBe Sva-^epcor olko ve i v '0\vv6t-
ovs, et tis rt Xeyot Kara Qikimrov kclt eiceivovs tovs xP°vovSi ot
AvBepovvTa avrois dtplei, k. r. A.; . . . . apa it poaboKav avrovs
TotavTa TTfio'ecrdai (sc. o'Uade) ; . . . . ap' o'Uo~de, ore Toi/s Tvpdvvovs
e'£e/3a\Ae, (tovs QerTaXovs) tt poahoKav k. t. A. ; for how imwillinr/ly
do you think the Olynthians used to hear it, if any one said anything
against Philip in those times when he was ceding Anthemus to them,
&c. ? Do you think they were expecting to suffer such things? Do
you think that the Thessalians, when he ivas expelling the despots, were
expecting, &c. ? Dem. Phil. H, p. 70, 25 to p. 71, 12. (The direct
discourse here was na>s .... tjkovov, d . . . . Aeycu ; and irpoo-f 86k<ov ;)
Kai yap tovs enl twv ivpoyovaiv rjpcov 'Xeyovras axovco tovtco tco edtt
Xprjo-dai, I hear that they used to follow this custom. Dem. 01. Ill,
34, 17. Td pev irpb "EXKtjvos ovbe eivai r) eniKX-qo'is avrrj (sc.
SoKei), in the times before Hellen this name does not appear to have
even existed. Thuc. I, 3. Again, in the same sentence of Thucydi-
des, irapexecrdai, to have furnished. Herd TavTa (<prj cnpds pev
ft* mveiv , tov be Sco/cpar^ ovk eitriei/ar tov ovv 'Ayddoiva tto\-
\6kls KeXeve tv pera7rep\|/,acr#ai tov 2a>Kp6.TT], e be ovk e'dv. Plat.
Symp. 1 75 C. (He said, ebemvovp.ev, 6 be 2. ovk elo-jjei ' 6 ovv 'A.
tKeXevev .... eyd> be ovk eicov.) Swru^fTv ydp (e'eprj) 'Arpeori'Sa 7rapd
4>iXi7T7rou nopevopevco, Kai per' uvtov yvvaia ko\ iraibdpia jBab i £e iv ,
for he said that he had met (Aor.) Atrestidas coming from Philip,
and that there were ivalking with him, &c. Dem. F. L. 439, 3. Tovr
ey<o qbrjui belv e'pe pn \a8eiv, I say that this ought not to have escapea
my notice. Dem. Cor. 291, 27. (The direct discourse here vas tovt
f Set e'pe pq \adtlv. § 49, 2, N. 3.)

16 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 15, 3.

For the Imperfect Participle, see § 16, 2.

Remark 1. This use of the Present of the Infinitive as an Im-
perfect cannot be too carefully distinguished from its ordinary use
after past tenses, where we translate it by the Imperfect, as in eXeyt
to o~rpaTevfxa fia^eo-dat, he said that the army was fighting. But here
fidxto-dm refers to time present, relatively to eXrye ; whereas, if it had
been used as an Imperfect, it would have referred to time past
relatively to eXeye, as in e'Xeye to o-TpaTevp.a ttj npoTepata fidyecrdai,
he said that the army had been fighting on the dag before. In the
former case the direct discourse was /id^erou, in the latter it was
e/xd^ero. Such an Imperfect Infinitive differs from the Aorist in
the same construction only by expressing a continued or repeated
action (as in the Indicative) : it gives, in fact, the only means of
representing in the Infinitive what is usually expressed by Xe'yfi on
firoiei, he says that he was doing, differing from Xe'yet oti iiroinrnv, he
says that he did. (For the rare use of the Present Optative to
represent the Imperfect in the same way, see § 70, 2, N. 1, (£»).) It
must be observed, that this construction is never used unless the
context makes it certain that the Infinitive represents an Imper-
fect and not a Present, so that no ambiguity can arise. See the
examples.

Remark 2. This important distinction between the ordinary
Present Infinitive referring to the past (when it takes its time
from a past tense on which it depends), and the same tense used
as an Imperfect and referring to the past by its own signification,
seems to be overlooked by those who would call the former also a
case of Imperfect Infinitive. But in the former case e(prj tovto
noielv is translated he said that he was doing this merely to suit
the English idiom, whereas the Greeks used the Present because
the time was to be present (relatively to e<pn), the direct discourse
being tovto ttoig> : in the other case, however, ecpr] tovto iroielv ttj
npoTepaia, he said that he had been doing this the dag before, the Greeks
used noieiv as a regular Imperfect (relatively to e<pr)), the direct
discourse being tovto inoiovv. So in Latin (Cic. Phil. V1TI, 10),
Q. Scaevolam memoria teneo bello Marsico, cum esset sunoia
senectute, quotidie _/acere omnibus con veniendi potestatem sui. So
(Cic. de Off. I, 30), Q. Maximum accepinms facile celare, tace~e,
dissimidare, insidiari, praeripere hostium consilia.

The. frequency of such constructions and their principle hare
been often overlooked, from the fact that they occur only when t.ae
context prevents all possible ambiguity.

16. 1. The Present Participle regularly refers to a
continued or repeated action, which is contemporary
with that of the leading verb. E. g.

Tovto noiovaiv vop.l£ovres k. r. X., they do this because they think,
&c. 'Enolovv vopi£ovTes, they were doing it in the thought, &c.
'Enoirio-av vopi(ovTes, they did it lecause they thought, &e. IIonj-

§ 16, 2.] PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 17

trovaiv vopl^ovres, they will do it in the thought, &o. Tavr eirpdxOrj
Kovaivos arparnyovvros, these things were done when Conon teas
general. Isoc. Evag. p. 200 C. § 56. (^rparnyovvTos is present rela-
tively to eVpax&y.) Kal Toiaira tt pdrrmv tL enoUt; and in doing
such things what was he doing? Dem. Phil. Ill, 114, 20.

Note. When the Present Participle is used like an ordinary
Adjective or Substantive (as in § 108), it occasionally refers to
time absolutely present, even when the leading verb is not present.
This must always be denoted by an adverb Eke vvv, or by some-
thing else in the context. E. «;.

Ttjv vvv Boicoriav KaXov pe vnv <&Kncrav, they settled in the country
now called Boeotia. Tnuc. I, 12. 'O toLwv <PiXt,niros e'| dpxns, ovtrai
AioTTfidovs (TTparnyovvTos, ov8e ra>v ovtcov tv Xeppovfjaco vvv dne-
crraXpevcov, 2eppeiov ku\ Aopia-Kov tXapftave, Philip then in the begin-
ning, when Diopeithes was not yet general, and when the soldiers who
are now in the Chersonese had not yet been sent out, seized upon
Serrium and Doriscus. Dem. Phil. HI, 114, 15. (Here o-rpaTn-
yovvros is present to the time of eXdp.j3ave, while ovtwv is present to
the time of speaking.)

2. The Present Participle is also used as an Imper-
fect, like the Present Infinitive. With the Participle
this use is not confined (as it is with the Infinitive) to
indirect discourse. E. g.

Oi trvptrp e<rj3f vovr e s Kal irapovres KaTapaprvpfjcrovaiv, those
who were his colleagues on the embassy and icho were present will
testify. Dem. F. L. 381, 5. (Here the embassy is referred to as a
well-known event in the past.) <J>aiWrai yap r) viv 'EXXas KaXovpevn
ov naXai /3e/3ata>s oiKovpevrj, dXXd peravaard(reis re ovcrai ra
irporepa, Kal pa8ia>s eKacrroi ttjv eavrwv djroXe in ovres, i. e. the
following things are evident, 'EXXas ov ndXai Pej3aia>s wk(Ito, dXXa
pfravaardaeis rjaav, Kal eKaaToi ttjv eavrav dneXenrov. TllUC. I, 2.
Oi8a tov ^(OKparnv 8 e iKvvvra rots t-vvovaiv eavrov KaXov Kayadov
ovra. Oi8a 8e KaKeivta ar u><p pov o vvre , e&rc 2u)Kparet arvvTjaTrjv.
Xen. Mem. I, 2, 18. (The direct discourse here was e'Sei/ci/u and
faa>(ppoveiTr}v.j

The principles stated in § 15, 3, with Remarks (cf. § 73, 1) in re-
gard to the Present Infinitive used as an Imperfect apply equally to
the Participle.

Remark. The rules for the time of the Infinitive and Participle
given in tins chapter do not include the Infinitive and Participle
with av. For these see Chapter DX § 41.

18 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 17, L

Perfect and Pluperfect.

A. In the Indicative.

§ 17. 1. The Perfect represents an action as already
finished at the present time ; as yey pa<pa, I have written
(that is, my writing is now finished) .

2. The Pluperfect represents an action as already

finished at some specified past time ; as eyeypa<pet,v, 1

had written (that is, my writing was finished at some

specified past time).

Note I. The consideration that the Perfect, although it implies
the performance of the action in past time, yet stales only that it
stands completed at the present time, will explain why the Perfect is
classed with the Present and Future among the primary tenses, that
is, the tenses of present or future time.

Note 2. The Perfect Indicative and the Pluperfect may be
expressed by the Perfect Participle with the Present or Imperfect
of elfit. Here, however, each part of the compound generally re-
tains its own signification, so that this form expresses more fully the
continuance of the result of the action down to the present time (in
the case of the Perfect), and down to the past time referred to (in
the case of the Pluperfect). E.g.

Heiroi-qKcos eo-nv (or rjv), he is (or teas) in the condition of having
done, — he has done (or had done). 'E/ioi) ol vofiot oi povov aneyvco-
Kores fieri pf] aSi/cely, aXXa Kal Ke Ke\ev /cores tovtj]v rfjv 8lkt]>
\apj3dvew, it is the laws which have not only acquitted me of injustice,
but have commanded me to inflict this punishment. Lys. de Morte
Erat. p. 95, 4. § 34. Ovpavos yeyovcos icrri re Kal er ecrrai,
heaven has been formed (and still exists), and will still continue.
Plat. Tim. 31 B.

Remark. The latter part of Note 2 of course does not apply to
cases where the compound form is the only one in use, as in the
third person plural of the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive and
Middle of mute and liquid verbs.

On the other hand, the simple form very often implies the con-
tinuance of the result of the action down to the present time, or
down to a specified past time ; but not so distinctly as the com-
pound form, and not necessarily. (See the last two examples.)

kg.

'Em^ieXar ot 6eo\ hv ol avdpconoi heovrat /care a Kevdicao~iv , the
Gods have carefully provided what men need. Xen. Mem. IV, 3, 3.
Twv 7ToiTjTcov rives vnodr^/cas tcaraXeXo inacriv, some of the poets have
left us maxims. Isoc. Nioocl. p. 15 B. § 3. ' Aicrjicoa pev rovvopa,

§ 18.] PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT. 19

uvr]fxov(VQ) S' ov, I have heard the name, but I do not remember it.
Plat. Theaet. 144 B. "A croi r-ixn Kexprjice, ravr dfaLXtro, For-
tune has taken back what she has Lent you. Menand. Frag. Incert.
No. 41.

Note 3. The Perfect of many verbs has the signification of
a Present, which is usually explained by the peculiar meaning
of these verbs. Thus Bvqa-iteiv, to die, TedvnKevai, to be dead ;
Kokflv, to call, kck\ ijcrdai, to be called or named ; ytyveadai, to
become, yeyovevai, to be ; pifivrjo-Ktiu, to remind, ptftvijo-dai,
to remember; olda (novi), I know ; &c.

The Pluperfect of such verbs has the signification of the
Imperfect ; as olda, I know, jjdeiv, I knew. (§ 29, N. 5.)

Note 4. In Homer and Herodotus the Pluperfect is sometimes
found in nearly the same sense as the Aorist. E. g.

BefiXrjKet y\ovToi> Kara 8e£i6v. H. V, 66. (Here two Aorists
follow, referring to the same time as fie&\r]i<ei.) Tavra i>s eirvdovro,
(opfiearo fior]dee», when they heard this, they started to carry aid.
Hdt. IX, 61. AXXoi de f/yefiovus epwfjap/ie'oTO «rl to ipav. Hdt
V 111, ou.

Note 5. In epistles, the Perfect and Aorist are sometimes used
where we might expect the Present, the writer transferring himself
to the time of the reader. E. g.

'An-earaXKa croi rovbt rbv \6yov, I send you this speech. Isoc. De-
mon. § 2. Mer 'Aprafidfav, ov aoi eir e pyjra, irpdo-o-e. Thuc. I, 129.
(Here bv eirep-^a refers to the man who was to carry the letter.)
So scripsi in Latin.

Note 6. The perfect sometimes refers to the future, to denote
the certainty or likelihood that an action will immediately take
place, in a sense similar to that of the Present (§ 10, N. 7), but with
more emphasis, as the change in time is greater. E. g.

Qcrr €L pe t6£o>v iyKparfjs aladrjarerai, o\<o\a, I shall perish at
once. Soph. Phil. 75. Kau tovto viKcopev, Ttdvff rjpiv TTfTroinrai..
Xen. An. I, 8, 12. So perii in Latin.

The Pluperfect can express the same certainty or likelihood
transferred to the past.

B. Perfect in the Dependent Moods.

§18. As the Perfect Indicative represents an act as
finished at the present time, so the Perfect of any of the
dependent moods represents an act as finished at the
time (present, past, or future) at which the Present of
that mood would represent it as going on.

20 USE OP THE TENSES. [§ 18, 1

1. The Perfect Subjunctive and Optative are very
often expressed in the active, and almost always in
the passive and middle, by the Perfect Participle with
co and 64771; ; and can always be resolved into these.
Their time, therefore, in each case, can be seen by
applying the principles stated in §§ 12 and 13 to the
w or ei7]v. Where the Present would denote future
time, the Perfect denotes future-perfect time. E. g.

To xpovov yeyevrjcrdai tto\vv dedoiKa ptj rtva \i)6nv vp.1v TreTTOirj kv ,
I fear lest the fact that a long time has passed may (when you come to
decide the case) prove to have caused in you some forgetfulness
Dem. F. L. 342, 10. (Mr/ noifi would mean lest it may cause, the
time being the same as before.) Xpiy avra [a TeXevrrjo-avra exdrepop
ivepipevei~\ aicoixrai, Iva reXeais eKarepos avrcov air e iXnCpjj ra uCpeiko-
peva, we must hear what awaits each of them after death, that (when we
have finished) each may have fully received his deserts. Plat. Rep. X,
614 A. Toiis pev aXXovs, kciv 8e8a>K ores 6>o~iv evdvvas, ttjv dei\oyiav
6pa> nporeivopevovs, I see that other men, even if they have already given
their accounts, — i. e. even if they are (in the state of) persons who
have given their accounts, — always offer a perpetual reckoning. Dem.
F. L. 341, 14. 'AvSpeiov ye irdvv vopi£optv, os av iv e 7rX rj yrj narepa,
we always consider one who has beaten his father very manly. Arist.
Av. 1350. No'/xof 6i)0~eiv p.n$evl ra>v 'EXkrjvcov vpds fSondeiv bs av prj
nporepos ftefiondnKois vplv #, i. e. to assist no one who shall not pre-
viously have assisted you. Dem. F. L. 345, 28. ('Os av prj irporepos
fionBj) would mean who shall not previously assist you. The Aorist
^ot]6ijo-rj would differ very little from the Perfect. See § 20, N- 2.)

*E8(io~av pr) \vo~aa rjplv e pireivT cokoi, they feared lest madness
might prove to have fallen upon us. Xen. An. V, 7, 2G. (Mr) e'pn'nrToi
would mean lest it might fall upon us.) LTwy ovk av olicrpoTara
ndvrav e'ya) nenovQ us e'lnv, el epe i\rn$'i.o-aivTo eivai f;tvov ; how
should I not have suffered the most pitiable of all things, if they should
vote me to be an alien? Dem. Eubul. 1312, 17. (This could have
been expressed, with a very slight difference in meaning, nms oi

nerrov6a>s eo-opai, Fut. Perf., iav \JAT](pio-a>vTai ; how shall 1

not have suffered, &c.) Ei oriovv ireTrovOats eKarepos r)pa>v etrj ,
ov Kot dpcporepoi av tovto n eivov 6 01 pev ; if each of us should have
suffered anything whatsoever, would not both of us have suffered it ?
Plat. Hipp. M. 301 A. Ovk av 81a. tovto y eiev ovk eidvs 8e8a)K0Tes,
this, at least, cannot be the reason why they did not pay it at once ; i. e.
they would not (on inquiry) prove to have not paid it on this account.
Dem. Onet. I, 867, 1. So Soph. Oed. T. 840. *EArye oaa dyada
Kiipos Uepcras ire no ir) ko 1 , he told hoio many services Cyrus ItaA
done the Persians. Hdt. III. 75. (TleTroirjKoi here represents nr-olnKe
of the direct discourse.) Ovtoi eXeyov as nevTaKocrioi avTo'is e in a at
e< rov Ueipaims 8e 8e Ka o~ p evot . Lys. in Philocr. p. 182, § 12.
(Here the direct discourse was irevTaKoo-ioi elaiv debeKaaptvoi.)

§ 18, 2.] PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. 21

Note. The Perfect Subjunctive in protasis (§ 50, 1) corresponds
exactly to the Latin Future Perfect Indicative ; but the Greek sel-
dom uses this cumbrous Perfect, preferring the less precise Aorist
(§ 20, N. 2). The Perfect Optative, in both protasis and apodosis,
corresponds to the Latin Perfect Subjunctive, but is seldom used.

The Perfect Optative can seldom be accurately expressed in
English. For when we use the English forms would have suffered
and should have suffered to translate the Perfect Optative, these are
merely vaguer expi-essions for will and shall have suffered. (See
the examples above.) / should have suffered is commonly past in
English, being equivalent to eiradov civ ; but here it is future, and is
therefore liable to be misunderstood. There is no more reference
to past time, however, in the Perfect Optative with av, than there
is in the Future Perfect Indicative in such expressions as pcvrnv tpoi
; KeK~kavcreTai, I shall have had my whipping for nothing (referring
to one received in his boyhood) ; Arist. Nub 1436.

2. The Perfect Imperative may express a command
that something just done or about to be done shall be
decisive and final. It is thus equivalent to the Perfect
Participle with the Imperative of el/xl. E. g.

TavTci pev 8r) ravrrj elpfja6a>, let so much have been thus said, i. e
let what has been thus said be sufficient. Plat. Crat. 401 D. But
oncos 8e el pi) a 8 co on, k. t. X., still let as much as this (which follows}
be said (once for all), that, &c. Plat. Rep. X, 607 C. LTepl tu>v
18'lcov tovto. /xot it poe i prj a 6 co , let this have been said (once for all)
by way of introduction. Isoc. Paneg. p. 43 D. § 14. Tavra ireiraiadco
re vpiv, kcu tcrcos Ikcivws e^et, let this be the etid of the play, ike. Plat.
Euthyd. 278 D. TfTa^u rjp.iv /caret DnpoKpariav 6 toiovtos civrjp,
let such a man remain where we have placed him, &c. Plat. Rep.
VLII, 561 E. 'An eipydcr 6 co 8rj ijplv avrrj r/ 7roXrrei'a, let now this be
a sufficient description of this form of government. Id. 553 A. Mc-'xpt
TovBf copier Q co vpcov rj Bpadvrrjs, at this point let the limit of your slug-
gishness be fixed. Thuc. I, 71.

This use seems to be confined to the third person singular of the
passive and middle. The third person plural in the same sense
could be expressed by the Perfect Participle with the Imperative of
elfil, as in Plat. Rep. VI, 502 A: ovtoi toiwv tovto Trenacrpevoi
fCTTcov, grant then that these have been persuaded of this.

Note 1. On this principle the Perfect Imperative is used in
mathematical language, to imply that something is to be considered
as proved or assumed once for all, or that lines drawn or points
fixed are to remain as data for a following demonstration. E. g.

J£l\ncpQa> eVi rrjs AB tv%6v crnptiov to A, /cat deptj prjcrOco dno
rrjs AT ttj A A i'cnj r) AE, let any point A be (assumed as) taken in th«
Uni AB, and AE equal to AA as cut off from AT Eucl. I, Pr. 9.

22 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 18, 2.

Note 2. The Perfect Imperative of the second person is rare {
when it is used, it seems to be a little more emphatic than the Pre-
sent or Aorist. E. g.

'He trvrovbe 8eoe£o. H. V, 228. M^ ire<p6pr)<r3e. Thuc. VI.
1 7. Mouov <tv tjiiiv twtto. 6eav n e ix o t rj tr o Kal detjiav Sos, only makt
us {immediately and once for all) solemn pledges and give the right
hand. Xen. Cyr. IV, 2, 7. Ueiravao, stop ! not another word ! Dem.
Timoc. 721, 6.

Note 3. In verbs whose Perfect has the force of a Present
(§ 1 7, N. 3) the Perfect Imperative is the ordinary form, as pepvrjao,
K(K\fjo-6a>, eorarco, redvaTo), torn. The Perfect Imperative active
seems to have been used only in such verbs. Occasionally we find
the periphrastic form with the Participle and elpi, as eirnu £v/x/3e-
Ptikvio.. Plat. Leg. V, 736 B.

3. (a.) The Perfect Infinitive in indirect discourse
represents a Perfect Indicative of the direct discourse,
and therefore denotes an action which is finished at the
time of the leading verb. E. g.

$r)ar\ tovto ireir paxevai , he says that he has done this ; e<f>rj tovto
ireir paxevai, he said that he had done this; (prjo-ei tovto ire-
ir paxevai, he ivill say that he has done this (the direct discourse in
each case being irewpaxa). *E0?; XPWa& iavra tovs Orj^aiovs
eniKeur) pvxtvai, he said that the Thebans had offered a reward for
his seizure. Dem. F. L. 347, 26. In Arist. Nub. 1277, irpoo~-
KeK\r)a6 ai pot doicels (according to Mss. Rav. & Ven.), you seem
to me to be sure to be summoned to court (to be as good as already sum-
moned), the Infinitive represents a Perfect Indicative referring to
the future (§ 17, N. 6). So nen coXvadai e86icei. Thuc. II, 8.

(5.) In other constructions the Perfect Infinitive
represents an act as finished at the time at which the
Present in the same construction would represent it as
going on (§ 15, 1). E. g.

Ou jiiovXev e ad ai en capu, aXXct /3e/3ouXet)cr#af Trjs yap
eiriovoi]s vvktos iravra Taiira Set Treir pax^at , it is no longer time to
be deliberating, but (it is time) to have finished deliberating ; for all
this must be done (and finished) within the coming night. Plat. Crit.
46 A. Kat prjv irepi dtv ye irpoaeTa^are .... npoarjKei Stw Krj tcevai ,
and it is his duty to have attended (during his absence) to the business
about which you gave him instructions. Dem. F. L. 342, 28. (This
refers to an ambassador presenting his accounts on his return.)
Swervyxave jroAXa^oO Sia ttjv o~revoxo>piav to. pev akXois t'/i|3e-
(3\rj Ke vai ra S ai/Tovs e pfte /3 X i) <r # at, dvo re ire pi piav ....
$vvr) pTtjo-dai , it often befell them to have made an attack on one
side and (at the same time) to have been attacked themselves on the

S 18, 4.] PERFECT INFINITIVE. 23

Other, &C. ThUC. "VTI, 70. 'Avdyxn yap ra pev peytan* avr£>v fjSrj
KaTaKexprjo-dai piKpii Se riva na paXeX ei(p 0ai, for it must be
that the most important subjects have been used up, and that only unim-
portant ones have been left. Isoc. Pan. p. 55 D § 74. Ovk rjdeXov
fHfiaiveiv Sia to KaranenXij %6 ai Tfl tf°~(Tfli they were unwilling to
embark on account of having been terrified by the defeat. Tuuc. VII,
72. To yap noXXd ajroXaXf ice'vai Kara tov noXepov ttjs rjptrtpat
dpeXeias av tis Ofir] diKalas, to 8e prjTt 7rdXai tovto neno vBevai
ne(finve'vai re' Tiva rjpiv o~vppa)(lav tovtcov dvripponov, Tr)s nap'
iKeiv&v evvoias evepyeTrjp.' av eycoye deirjv, for our having lost many
things during the war any one might justly charge upon our neglect ;
but our never having suffered this before and the fact that an alliance
has now appeared to us to make up for these losses I should consider a
benefaction, &c. Dem. 01. I, 12, 3. (Compare yeyevrjtrOai in the
first example under § 18, 1.) "Ecpdao-av napoiKodoprio-avTes, wore
•MjKeTi pnre avTol KcoXveaflai in avTwv, eKeivovs re Kal navTanaaiv

an e <rr e pn <evai o(pds aTroTei^iaai, i. e. they carried their

own wall beyond that of the Athenians, so as no longer to be themselves
interfered with by them, and so as to have effectually prevented them,
&C. ThUC. VII, 6. 'EnepeXrjdn Kal t5>v XomStv, ghtts tcov napovT<ov
Tois dvdpdmois dyaBaiv pnb'ev pev avev tt)s n6X(a>s eivai, to. Se nXdora
did Tavrrjv yey evrjadai. IsOC. Pan. p. 48 B. § 38. ToiaxJTa /cat
Too'avTa KaTeo-Ktvaaav r)p1v, coare prjSevl tcov eniyiyvopevcov infpfioXrjv
\eXei<p6ai , they made such and so great acquisitions as to have no
possibility of surpassing them left to any one who should come after,
them. Dem. 01. Ill, 35, 18. Aiftopev avrots npoiiza avy ice nocpdat ,
we allow them to have cut us up for nothing (i. e. we make no account
of their having done so). Arist. Nub. 1426.

Note. The Perfect Infinitive is sometimes used like the Perfect
Imperative (§ 18, 2), signifying that the action is to be decisive and
permanent, and sometimes it seems to be merely more emphatic
than the Present or Aorist Infinitive. E. g.

Elnov ttjv Ovpav ice icXe'io-d ai , they ordered that the door should be
shut and remain so. Xen. Hell. V, 4, 7. BovXopevos dycovi Ka\
&iKao-TT]pia> poi Sico pi a 6 at nap' vp.lv on rdvavria ipo\ Kal tovtols
ninpaKtai, i. e. wishing to have it definitely and once for all settled in
your minds. Dem. F. L. 410, 28. QtXovaas npos nvXais nenra)-
Ktvai, eager to fall before the gates. Aesch. Sept. 462. "HXawtv
hfi Toiis Meviovos, aor' e<eivovs ( KnfnXij x@ aL Kal Tpexeiv em ra
onXa, he marched against the soldiers of ' Menon, so that they were (once
for all) thoroughly frightened and ran to arms. Xen. An. I, 5, 18.
(Here eKnenXf/xdai. is merely more emphatic than the Present would
have been.)

Kemark. The Perfect Infinitive belongs also to the Pluperfect,
and is occasionally used to represent that tense in indirect discourse.
This occurs chiefly (perhaps only) when the Infinitive is modified
by av. See the first example under § 41, 2.

4. The Perfect Participle in all its uses refers to an

24 USE OP THE TENSES. [§ 19.

action as already finished at the time of the leading
verb. E g.

'YLttclivovo i rovs elprjKoras, they praise those who have spoken,
'Enrlveo-av rovs elprjKoras, they praised those who had spoken.
'Enaiveaovo-i rovs elpnKoras , they will praise those who have (then)
spoken. 'ErreSei^a ov8ei> aXrjdes an^y-ye Xkotci (Aio^a^i/), I shoived
that Aeschints had announced nothing that was true (i. q. I showed,
»v8ei> dXrjdei dn^yy eX/cei/). Dem. F. L. 396, 30.

AORIST.
A. In the Indicative.

§ 19. The Aorist Indicative expresses the simple
momentary occurrence of an action in past time ; a?
eypatya, I wrote.

This fundamental idea of simple occurrence remains the
essential characteristic of the Aorist through all the dependent
moods, however indefinite they may be in regard to time.

Note 1. The Aorist of verbs which denote a state or
condition generally expresses the entrance into that state c
condition. E. g.

Bao-iXevco, I am king, eftacriXevcra, I became king; np^co, I hold
office, rjp^a, I obtained office ; ttKovtw, inkovrno-a, I became rich. Tfj

d\rj6eiq cruvcaKfi Kal oiSeVra) dTroXeXoiirev ' aXXa napa £g>vtos

Tipo/cpdrovs eKeiva o-vvcoKno-e , she was his wife in good faith, and

has not even yet been divorced ; but she went to live with him,

&c. Dem. Onet. I, 873, 8.

Note 2. The Aorist differs from the Imperfect by denoting the
momentary occurrence of an action or state, while the Imperfect
denotes a continuance or repetition of the same action or state.
This is especially obvious in the verbs mentioned in Note 1, as
ffiao-iXfvov, rjpxov, eirXovrovv, I was king, held office, icas rich. (See
especially the last example under N. 1.) The Aorist is therefore
the tense most common in narration, the Imperfect in description.
The Aorist may sometimes refer to a series of repetitions ; but it
refers to them collectively, as a single whole, while the Imperfect
refers to them separately, as individuals. So the Aorist may even
refer to a continued action, if (as a whole) it is viewed as a single
event in past time. E. g.

'Eycb 8e rjXPov, eldov, evinno-a, I came, I saw, I conquend
(Veni, vidi, vin) App. Bell. Civ. II, 91. So e/3ao-iXet/<r« B(<a

§ ly.J A0UIST IN THE DEPENDENT MOODS. 25

«i t; may be used to mean he had a reign of ten years (which is now
viewed as a single past event) ; whereas efiatrLXeve S«/co ert] would
mean he continued to reign ten years.

NoTe 3. The distinction between the Imperfect and Aorist was
sometimes neglected, especially by the older writers. See §11,
Note 5.

Note 4. (a.) The Aorist is sometimes found where we
should expect the Perfect or the Pluperfect ; the action being
simply referred to the past, without the more exact specifi-
cation afforded by the Perfect and Pluperfect. E. g.

Ta>v o1k(twv ovBtva KareXnrev, dXX' anavra irkirpaKev. Ae-
6CHIN. Timarch. § 99. 'Erpanovro e's rbv Uavoppov, odevnep avnyd-
yovTo, they turned towards Panormus, whence they had set sail.
ThUC. II, 92. Kvpov 8e peTam^ineTai dno ttjs dp\ris rjt avTov
rarpairnv tiro in ere v, of which he had once made him satrap. Xen.
An. I, 1, 2.

(b.) Especially the Aorist is generally used, even where we
mould expect the Pluperfect, after particles of time like inti,

iirtibr), as (when), ore, fas, irpiv, &C. E. g.

'ETrfiSi) €Tt\evTT)cre Aapelos K.a\ KareaTT] 'Apra^ep^ns, after Darius
lad died and Artaxerxes had become established. Xen. An. I, 1, 3.
du npoaBev i^eveyKiiv iroXpncau npbs rjpas TroXepov, irpiv rovt
rrparnyovs r/pav avviXafiov, before they had seized our generals.
Xen. An. Ill, 2, 29. Ol 5' ore 8rj Xipevos noXvftevdeos evrbs Zkovto,
chen they had entered. H. I, 432. So in Latin, postquam venit, after
le had come.

Note 5. The Aorist is sometimes used in colloquial language
Dy the poets (especially the dramatists), when a momentary action,
which is just taking place, is to be expressed as if it had already
happened. E. g.

'E it -q veer' epyov Kai trpovoiav rjv e'Oov, I must approve your act, &c.
Soph. Aj. 536. "Hadnv dneiXais, eyeXaaa y^oXoKopTriais, I am
amused by your threats, I cannot help laughing, &c. Arist. Eq. 696.

Note 6. The Aorist soraetinips refers vividly to the future, like
the Present or Perfect (§ 10, N. 7 ; § 17, N. 6) ; as diraXopnv el
pe Xetyeis, I perish if you leave me, Eur. Ale. 386.

So in questions with rt ov expressing surprise that something is
not already done, and implying an exhortation to do it ; as ri ovv
ov 8trjyrjo-co; why thtn do you not tell us the story ? Plat. Prot.
310 A. See also rt ovi> ovk e KaXeaapev; Prot. 317 D.

B. Aorist in the Dependent Moods.

Remark. The Aorist of the dependent moods differs from
the Present as is explained in the Remark before § 12.

26 USE OF THE TENSF.S. [§ 20.

§ 20. The Aorist Subjunctive denotes a single or
momentary action, the time of which is determined by
the rules that apply to the time of the Present Subjunc-
tive, § 12 : —

That is, in clauses denoting a purpose or object, aftc*
u>a, fir/, &c., it refers to time future relatively to the
leading verb ; in conditional sentences (including con-
ditional relative and temporal sentences), — in ordinary
protasis (§ 50, 1), the Subjunctive refers to the future;
in general suppositions after verbs of present time (§ 51),
it refers to indefinite time represented as present. In
independent sentences it refers to t\\e future. E. g.

Ae'SoiKa ^177 iiri\a6a(i(6a tt)s olicaSe 6&ov, I fear lest we may forget
the road home. Xen. An. Ill, 2, 2o. Aiayoflrat tt)v ye(pvpav \vaai,
us [it] 8 1 a fir) re dXX' aTroXncpBrjTf , he intends to destroy the bridge,
that you may not pass over but be caught. Id. II, 4, 1 7. *Hv tt)v flpr)vrjv
7r oino- a> p. e 6 a, perd 7ro\\r)s da(pu\eias tt)v noXiv olia)cropev, if ire
shall make the peace, &c. Isoc. Pac. p. 163 A. § 20. 'Q? av etirta
net6a>fi(8a, let us obey as I shall direct. II. IX, 704. *Hv eyyis eX6tj
6dvaros, ov§e\s fiovXerai 6vt\o-k.iw, if death comes near (the moment that
death comes near), no one wants to die. Eur. Ale. 671. *Oi> pev av
'I8rj dyi'cora (sc. 6 kvcov), ^aXtnaivei- ov b av yviopipov (sc. 1617),
do-tra&Tai, i. e. whomsoever the dog sees (at anytime). Plat. Rep. II,
376 A. 'Ava\oy io-a>p.t 8a ra mpoXoynpiva i)piv, let us enumerate
the points which have been conceded by «s. Plat. Prot. 332 D.
MrjBev (f>ofir)6f)s, fear not (in this case). (But p.r)8tv <po^oi, be not
timid.) Ti iroirjaoi; what shall I do (in a single case)'} (But ti
noim; what shall I do (generally)'}) Oi> pr) tovto c'iirns, you will
not say this. Ov pi) yzvnrai, it will not happen. So in the Ho-
meric ov8e 'I8a>pai, nor shall 1 ever see.

See other examples under the rules in Chapter IV.

Note 1. "When the Aorist Subjunctive depends on ineir
ildv (endv, infjv), after that, it is referred by the meaning of the
particle to a moment of time that precedes the action of the
leading verb, so that lirei8dv tovto tbco, eXevo-opai mean? after
I shall have seen this, I will come; and fweiSdv tovto 18m,
dnepxopai, after I have seen this, I (always) depart. In such
cases it is to be translated by our Future Peifect, when the
leading verb is future ; and by our Perfect, when the leading
verb denotes a general truth and is translated by the Present.
As the Subjunctive in this construction can never depend

$20] AORl&T SUBJUNCTIVE AS 1 CTURE PERFECT. 27

upon a verb expressing simply present time, it is obvious that
it can never refer to time absolutely past: we use the Perfect
Indicative in translating such Aorists after verbs expressing
general truths, merely because we use the Present in translat-
ing the leading verb, although that is properly not merely
present, but general in its time.

In like manner, after itos, nplv, and other particles signify-
ing until, before that, and even after the relative pronoun
or idv, the Aorist Subjunctive may be translated by our Future
Perfect or Perfect, when the context shows that it refers
to a moment of time preceding that of the leading verb.
E- g-

Xprj de, orav uh ridfjade rovs vofiovs, owoioi rives elcriv crKoneiv,
€TT(idav 8i 6fj<r6e, (pvXdrreiv kcli xpwdai, while you are enacting
laws, you must look to see of what kind they are; but after you have
enacted them, you must guard and use them. Dem. Mid. 525, 11.
(Here the Present ridrfaQe after orav, while, refers to an action con-
tinuing through the time of the leading verb; but etjadc after
ineidav, after that, refers to time past relatively to the leading verb.)
Tavra, eneiBdv nepl rov yevovs eiVw, tots, dv fiovXrjadc dicoveiv,
ipa>, when 1 shall have spoken about my birth, then, if you desire to
hear, I will speak of these things. Dem. Eubul. 1303, 25. (Here the
Aorist e'ina>, though absolutely future, denotes time past with refer-
ence to ipw.) 'E7rei6ai/ d ian pd£co pai a Btopai, fjfja, when J shall
have accomplished what I desire, I will come. Xen. An. H, 3, 29.
'EntiSau Se Kpv^raxri yfj, dvrjp fjprjpe'vos vnb tt)$ iroXeus Xe'-yet eV
avrols eiraivov rov irpenovra, when they have covered them with earth,
&C iHUC. H, 34. Eccj dv aai^nrai to aicdcpos. rare xP*l npodvpovs
eivai' eneio'av 8e i) OdXarra vnep & xd i pdraios r/ cnrovBrj, as long as
it remains in safety (Present) ; — but the moment that the sea has over-
whelmed^ it (Aorist). Dem. Phil. HI, 128, 22. "Ea>s dv tKpddys,
i'x' eXnida, until you have learnt fidly, have hope. Soph. O. T. 834.
Mia 8e kXivt] tcevr) qbeperat rcov d<pavu>v, ot dv p.f] evpedoyaiv es
diaipeaiv, and one bier is always carried empty, in honor of the miss-
ing, whose bodies have not been found. Thuc. II, 34. Tt'y diavoelrai,
a av aXXoi rfj apery Karan pd^ma-i, rovrav laouoipeiv; who ever
thinks of having an equal share in those things which others by their
valor have acquired ? Xen. Cyr. H, 3, 5. ndvd' oa dv e< iroXcpov
yiyvopevrjs elprjvns npoetifj, ravra rots dpeXrjaacnv dnoXXyrat, all
things which are (or have been) abandoned when peace is made are
always lost to those who abandoned them. Dem. F. L. 388, 9. *Hi> 8'
apa Kai rov Treipa cr(paX <J> aiv, avreXnio-avres aXXa enXfjpaxrav rrjv
Xpei-av, if they have been disappointed in anything, they always supply
Me deficiency,^ &c. Thuc. I, 70. (See § 30, 1.) O^i navo-ouat,
irpii av ae rav ltcov kvoiov art) era retcvw, I will not cease before 1
hav% (shall have) made \ ->u master of your children. Soph. O. G

28 USE OF THE TENSES [§ 20.

1040. M^ <Treva£e np\v fidfirjs, do not groan until you have heard.
Soph. Phil. 917.

Note 2. The use of the Aorist Subjunctive mentioned in Note 1
sometimes seems to approach very near to that of the Perfect Sub-
junctive (§ 18, 1) ; audTve often translate both by the same tense
in English. But with the Perfect, the idea of an action completed
at the time referred to is expressed by the tense of the verb, with-
out aid from any particle or from the context ; with the Aorist, the
idea of relative past time can come only from the particle or the
context. (See § 18, 1, Note.) E. g.

Ov pev av 'idrj dyvwra (6 kvo>v), ^aXenalvei • bv 8' av yvuipipov
(187), dcnrd^erai, kclv p.T)8ev iranrore vn avrov dya66v n enovdr],
whomsoever he sees whom he knows, he fawns upon, even if he has
hitherto received no kindness from him. Plat. Rep. II, 376 A. Com-
pare this with iav dyadov ri irdOrj biro tivos, do-rrdfcrai, if he ever
happens to receive any kindness from any one, he always fawns upon
him; and eVetSai/ dyadov ri irdOrj, do-7rd(erai, after he has received
any kindness, he always fawns upon him. See examples under
§ 18, 1.

§21. 1. The Aorist Optative, when it is not in in-
direct discourse, denotes a single or momentary action,
the time of which is determined by the rules that apply-
to the time of the Present Optative, § 13, 1 : —

That is, in clauses denoting a purpose or object, after
lvci, 07r&)9, fj,rj, &c., it refers to time future relatively to
the leading verb ; in conditional sentences (including
conditional relative and temporal sentences), — in ordi-
nary protasis (§ 50, 2), the Optative refers to the future
(only more vaguely than the Subjunctive) ; in general
suppositions after verbs of past time (§ 51), it refers to
indefinite past time. In independent sentences it refers
to the future. E. g.

♦iXt7r7ros eV qboftw tjv prf e<(pvyoi ra irpdypara avrov, Philip was
in fear lest the control of affairs might escape him. Dem. Cor. 236, 19.
Ei ZXdot, izdvr av 18ot, if he should go, he ivould see all. Ei eXOoi,
ndvff to>pa, if ever (whenever) he went, he (always) saw all. Ovd'
€i ndvres eXdoiev Ucpvai, TrXfjOet ye 01)% vne pfiaX o ifif 6 av rovs
TroXeulovs, not even if all the Persians should come, should we sur-
pass the enemy in numbers. Xen. Cyr. II, 1,8. "Ore e|co rov deivov
yevotvro, Kal e^eir/ npos ciXXovs lipxpvras dmivai, iroXXoi avrov
dneXetnov, but when they were come out of danger and it was in their
power (Present) to go to other commanders, (in all such cases) many
i<ft him. Xen. An. II, 6, 12. "Avev yap dp^ovraiv (vb~£t av ovrt kuXow

§ 21, 2.] AORIST OPTATIVE. 29

o$t( ayadbv yt voito, nothing could be done, &c. Xen. An. HT, 1 38.
Ovk otdu o ti liv ns xPl(TalT0 avrols, I do not know what use any
one could make of them. Xen. An. Ill, 1, 40. JLWe <rv toiovtos a>v
(piXos rjfih' yevoio, may you become a friend to us. Xen. Hell. IV,
1, 38. Mij yevot-ro, may it not happen.

See othei examples under the rules in Chapter IV.

Note. When the Aorist Optative depends upon eneiBf] or eVf»,
after that, it is referred by the meaning of the particle to a moment
of time preceding that of the leading verb, like the Aorist Sub-
junctive in § 20, N. 1, so that eneibrj 1801, dnrjpxero means after he
had seen, he (always) went away. This gives the Aorist in transla-
tion the force of a Pluperfect. So after ecus, until, and in the other
cases mentioned in § 20, N. 1. E. g.

Ovs pev iSoi eiiraKrcos lovras, rives re elev npoora, Kai eVet nvdoiro ,
e'nrjvei, he asked any whom he saw marching in good order, who diey
were ; and after he had ascertained, he praised them. Xen. Cyr. V,

3, 55. Uepiefj.evop.ev eKacrrore ecos dvo i%8 e ltj to deapatrfjpLov
eneidfj 8e avoi)(delr], elcrrjeipev napa rbv ^coxpaTT], we waited each
morning until the prison was opened (or had been opened) ; and after
it ivas opened, we went in to Socrates. Plat. Phaed. 59 D. Ov8a-
podev dcpiecrav, irpiv napad elev avrols apiarov, before they had
placed breakfast before them. Xen. An. IV, 5, 30.

2. From the general rule for indirect discourse (§69,
1) we derive the following special rules : —

(a.) First, if the Aorist Optative in indirect discourse
represents an Aorist' Indicative of the direct discourse,
it denotes a momentary or single action which is past
with reference to the leading verb. E. g.

*E\e£av on Tvep-tyeie acpas 6 (3aai\evs, they said that the king had
sent them (i. e. they said eirep-yp-ev rjpds 6 fiaaiXevs). Xen. Cyr. II,

4, 7. Tore eyvixjQn on oi (3dpj3apoi rbv civdpcimov VTroneptyaKV,
then it became known that the barbarians had sent the man. Xen. An.
H, 4, 22. 'EroX/xa \eyew <uj TroXAa rcov epav Xafioiev, he dared to
say that they had taken much of my property. Dem. Aph. I, 828, 25.
'Hpo)r<Bi> avrbv el avanXevare lev , I asked him whether he had set
sail (i. e. / asked him the question, aveiikevcras ;). Dem. Polycl. 1223,
21. 'EneipcaTa riva i'Soi, he asked whom he had seen (i. e. riva
eides, whom did you see?). Hx>T. I, 31. So I, 116: eipero Ko6ei>
Xd/3ot.

(5.) But if it represents an Aorist Subjunctive of the
direct discourse, it denotes a momentary or single action
which is future with refeience to the leading verb.
E.g.

?0 USE OF THE TENSES. T§ 21, 2.

Oi Eni.Sdfivioi rbv debv eV^poiro el 7rapa8o7ev KopivdloLs rfjv
»6\iv, they asked whether they should deliver up their city to the Co-
rinthians (i. e. they asked the question, napabmuev rf)v irokiv ; shall
we deliver up our cityf). Thitc. I, 25. 'Eo-kottovv onus kuWiot
eVfy/cai/i' avrov, I looked to ses how I coidd best endure him (i. e. /
asked, tto>s iveyKw avrov; how can I endure him?). Eur. Hipp.
393. Ai{aiu>nT)(T€ o-kottoiv o ri dnoKplvairo , he continued silent,
thinkinq ichat he should answer (i. e. thinkinq, ti dnoKolvcouai:}.
Xen. Mem. IV, 2, 10. J

Remark. Examples of the Aorist Optative representing the
Aorist Subjunctive in a dependent < lause of the direct discourse, to
which the same principles apply, maj. be found under § 74, 1. The
Aorist Indicative is, however, generally retained in dependent
clauses of indirect quotations: see § 74, 2, with N. 1.

Note 1. It will be seen by a comparison of the examples
under (a) and (b), as in § 13, 2, Note 1, that an ambiguity
may sometimes arise from uncertainty whether the Aorist
Optative stands for the Aorist Indicative, or for the Aorist
Subjunctive in a question of doubt. Thus, rjyvoow o n Trot 17 -
treiau might mean, they knew not what they had done (the
Optative representing ti liroiijo-ap.fv; xohat did we do ?), or they
knew not what they should do (the Optative representing rf
noiTjo-afxev ; what shall we do?). The context must decide in
each case ; but in most cases the latter construction is intended.
(For the manner of avoiding a similar ambiguity, see § 74, 2,
N. 1.)

§ 22. The Aorist Imperative refers to a momen-
tary or single action in future time ; as el-ire fioi, tell
me; Bore fioi tovto, give me this.

§ 23. The Aorist Infinitive has two distinct uses,
corresponding to the first two uses of the Present In-
finitive (§ 15) : —

1. First, in its ordinary use (either with or without
the article), whenever it is not in indirect discourse,
it denotes a momentary or single action without regard
to time, unless its time is especially defined by the con-
text. E. g.

IloXfcof io-ri ftdvaros dvdtrrarov yevetrdai, it is death for a city to
ve laid waste. 1>curg. in Leocr. p. 155, 35. § 61. 'Qa^p rcSv

§ 2'3, 1.] AORIST INFINITIVE. 31

avhpHav rois KaXo'is KayaBois alpeTarepov ecrri koXws dnoQavelv 77 £rjr
aicrxpw, outco kcu tuiv rroXeajv Tins vnepe^ovaais XvaireXe'iv (jjyovvro)
e£ ai>6pu>Tra>v d(pavi(r8 rj vai pdXXov f^ SovXats dcpdijvai yevofievais,
as it is preferable for honorable men to dii (Aor.) nobly rather than to
continue living (Pres.) in disgrace, so also they thought that it was
belter (Pres.) for the pre-eminent among states to be (at once) made />
disappear from the earth, than to be (once) seen to have fallen int.
slavery. Isoc. Paneg. p. 60 C. § 95. Uepnovaiv is ttjv KepKvpa»
npecrfieis, beopevoi fir) crcpa? ivepiopdv (p6eipopevovs, dXXa tovs re
(pevyovras f-vvaXXc^ai acpiai /cat rov tuiu (Sapfidpeov noXepov
KaraXvo-ai, asking them not to .allow them to be destroyed, but to
bring about a reconciliation .... and to put an end to the war. Thuc.
I, 24. To yap yvwvai emo-T-qp^v ttov Xafteiv eoriv, to learn is
to acquire knowledge. Plat. Theaet. 200 E. Hdvres to KaraXiireiv
avrd ndvruiv pdXiara (pevyopev, ice all try 7nost of all to avoid leaving
them behind. Xex. Mem. II, 2, 3. Ol> yap to prj Xafieiv rdyadd
ovtq} ye )(aXeTr6i> danep to Xafidvra are pt] Or) vat \vnnpov. Xex.
Cyr. VII, 5, 82. ToO meiv emOvpia, the desire of obtaining drink.
Thuc. VII, 84. KeAeiiei avTov eXdelv, he commands him to go
'F.KeXevaev avrov eXdeiv, he commanded him to go. KeXevcrei avrbv
e'Xdeiv , he ivill command him to go. JJpos ra pnSev e\ t?)S rrpeo-^eias
Xafieiv, tovs alxp.aXa>Tovs eXvo-aro, besides receiving nothing from
the embassy, he ransomed the captives. Dem. F. L. 412, 21. Et npb
rov tous $coKeay dnoXe a da t y\rr)<$>io-aio-8e fiorjOeiv, if before the de-
struction of the Phocians you should vote to go to their assistance.
Dem. Cor. 236, 20. Tds alrlas npovypatya, tov prj rtva Cnri] o~a i
rrore e'£ otov to<tovtos rroXepos Karearn, that no one may ever ask the
reason, why, &c. Thuc. I, 23. Cf. Dem. Cor. 295, 13 ; Eur. Orest.
1529.

Remark. The Remark which follows § 15, 1 applies also to the
Aorist Infinitive.

Note 1 . For a discussion of the time denoted by the Infinitive
when it has the article and also a subject, see Appendix, LI.

Note 2. Xpdw, dvatpeco, 6eo-tri(a>, and other verbs signifying to
give an oracular response, are sometimes followed by the Aorist (as
well as by the Present) Infinitive, which expresses the command,
advice, or warning given by the oracle. These verbs here simply
take the ordinary construction of verbs of commanding and advising.
E.g.

Xpco/zffo) he t<5 KvXmn dveiXev 6 Beds, ev rfj rov Aios 777 peyiarrj
ioprf] KaraXajielv ttjv AOnvaiatv aKpoiroXiv, that he should seize.
Thuc. I, 126. But we find dve'iXev eo-ea-dai in Thuc. I, 118.
Eice xpTjro yap roicri ^napTi^Tncri, 77 Aa<ehaipova avdararov ye-
vitrdai, r\ rov fiaaiXea acpecov dnoXe a 6 at. Hdt. VTI, 220.
'E 6 e a- n t o~ e KopiVai .... koi elaideiv . Eur. Iph. Taur. 1014.
So "Kerne oi . . . . vovo~a> inr' dpyaXen <j>6 Lo~6 at . . . . rj im6
Tpdifo-cr' dafj.rji>ai, the diviner told him that he must either die by

32 USE OF THE TENSES. T§ 23, 1

painful disease at home, or perish at the hands of the Trojans. \
XIII, 667. So after xpno-pos, Plat. Rep. HI, 415 C.
For the Present see § 15, 1. N. 2.

Note 3. The Present of avrios elfu, I am the cause, is often used
with reference to the past, where logically a past tense should be
used; as airios eon. tov'tco daveiu, he is the cause of his death, instead
of a'tTios rjv tovtco Baveiv, he ivas the cause of his death. This often
gives an ordinary Aorist Infinitive after this form the appearance
of a verb of past time, like the Aorist Infinitive in indirect discourse.
This will be explained in each case by mentally substituting a past
tense for the present. E. g.

Aitioiovv fieri Kal vp.1v noXKcov rfbr} |fu o-drjvai ical 8r) dSiKcog
ye rivas dnoXe <r6 at, they are the cause why you were deceived
and some even perished (i. e. they caused you to be deceived and
some^ even to perish). Lys. de Arist. Bon. 156, 28. § 51. ledvacnv
ol 8e faivres aiTiot Bavelv. Soph. Ant. 1173. "H poi p,r)Tp\ pev
6ave\v povn (jLeratTios. Soph. Trach. 1233.

For the construction of the Infinitive see § 92, 1, Note 2 (end).

2. Secondly, the Aorist Infinitive in indirect dis-
course is used to represent an Aorist Indicative of the
direct discourse, and therefore denotes a momentary or
single action, which is past relatively to the leading
verb. E. g.

Qpaiv tovto TTotrjo-ai, he says that he did this (i. e. he says tovto
ii:olr)<Ta). ^"Ecp-q tovto noirjo-ai, he said that he had done this (i. e.
he said tovto eWqcra) . <&rjo-ei tovto iroirjaai, he will say that he
did this (i. e. he will say tovto inoino-a). 'O Kvpos \eytrai yeveadui
Kafifivo-eco, Cyrus is said to have been the son of Cambyses. Xex. Cyr.
1,^ 2, 1. IlaXatoraroi Xeyovrai iv pipei tiv\ ttjs x^Pas Ku/cXoOTes
otKTJaai, they are said to have settled. Thuc. VI, 2. *Ho-av vttotttoi
aurois fifj irpodipcos cr<pio-t. irepyjsai a enepy^av, they were suspected
of not having sent them with alacrity what they did send. Thuc.
VI, 75.

Note 1. The principle stated in § 15, 2, N. 1, will decide in
doubtful cases whether the Infinitive stands in indirect discourse or
in the construction of § 23, 1.

Note 2. Verbs and expressions signifying to hope, to ex-
pect, to promise, and the like, after which the Infinitive in
indirect discourse would naturally be in the Future (§ 27, N.
3), as representing a Future Indicative of the direct discourse,
sometimes take the Aorist (as well as the Present) Infinitive.
(See § 15, 2, N. 2.) E.g.

EiXneTo Kvdos dpiadai. he was hoping to obtain glory. H. XII,

§ 23, 2.] AORIST INFINITIVE. 83

407. UdXiv epoX' a napos ovirore rfK-mcrtv nadelv. Eur. Here. F.
746. El yap Kparfjcreiav ra vavriKca, to 'Vrjytov rjXm^ov pq8ia>s
Xtipi>o~ao~6ai, they hoped to subdue Rhegium. Thuc. IV, 24. Ov8'
av iXms r/v avra SeX 'Leo yevtadai., there would not be even a hope oj
their becoming better. Dem. Phil. I, 40, 18. 'E/c pev tov kokcos npdr-
reiv ras TroXei? peTaftoXrjs Tv^elv «rl to /3e'Xrtov cikos e'emv, ex Se tov
rravTaTraari y€vea6ai dvdo-TaTov (cat tg>v koivcov (Xnidcov err e prjdrjvai.
Lycurg. in Leocr. p. 155, 30. § 60. (Cf. below, iXms e/c tov kcucojs
npd£ai pfTanfo-el,.^ Ynoo~xopevos pf) irpoaBev navo-aadat, Trplv
avTovs Karaydyoi oi'/caSe, having promised not to stop until he had re-
stored them to their homes. Xen. An. I, 2, 2. 'Yn-eVxeTo poi [BovXtv-
cracr8ai. Id. II, 3, 20. 'HTreiXrjaav dnoKTelvai diravras tovs iv
ijj olxia. Xen. Hell. V, 4, 7.

Note 3. In all the cases which belong under Note 2, the lead-
ing verb by its own signification refers to the future, so that the
expression is seldom ambiguous : thus vneo-xcTo iroir]o-ai can never
mean anything but he promised to do, although the Aorist Infinitive
appears to represent a Future Indicative of the direct discourse,
contrary to § 15, 2, N. 1. The case is different, however, when the
Aorist Infinitive follows verbs whose signification has no reference
to the future, like voplfa, o'lopai, or even (pnpi, and still appears to
represent a Future Indicative; e. g. where in Arist. Nub. 1141*
biKao-aaBai (paai pot is said to mean, they say they will bring an
action against me, while just below, vs. 1180, tfjjtmj/ to. npvTavud (paal
poi means, they say they will deposit the Prytaneia. Stdl, unless we
decide to correct a large number of passages, against the authority
of the Mss. (which is actually done by many critics, especially
Madvig), we must admit even this anomalous construction ; al-
though it is to be considered strictly exceptional, and is, moreover,
very rare in comparison with the regular one with the Future or the
Aorist with «V. E. g.

$aro yap TiaraaOai dXeiras.for he said that he should punish the
offenders. Od. XX, 121. (In II. ni, 28, we have in most Mss. and
editions (pdro yap t io-eo-dat dXe'iTnv, in precisely the same sense.
Cf. II. HI, 366.) Kai avTco ov pe p\js acOat 'Anpirjv (sc. aW/cptVaro) •
nape a e crBai yap <a\ aiirus /cat liXXovs a^eiv, and (he answered)
that Apries should not blame him ; for he would not only be present
himself, but would bring others. Hdt. II, 162. (Notice the strange
transition from the Aorist (?) to the two Futures.) &na\v ovde rf]v
Aios Epiu 7re'S« o-K.r)^raaav tpnoo'cov cr^e^ei!/. Aesch. Sept. 429.
Oipai yap vtv t/cerevtrat rdfie, / think of imploring. Eur. Iph. Aul.
462. (Here Hermann reads i/cerevo-eii/, by conjecture.) 'Evopiaav
(TtidtpevoL pqbicos KpaTTJo-ai, they thought they should gain the victory.
THUC. II, 3. No/lu'£o>, *]i> 'nnrfiis yevcopai, civdpanros nrqvbs yeve o~6ai.
Xen. Cyr. IV, 3, 15. Tovto 8e oierai ol pdXio-Ta yeveadai, ei o~o\
avyyivoiTo, and he thinks that this would be most likely to happen to
him if he should join himself with you. Plat. Prot. 316 C. (Here
we should expect yevea6ai civ, to correspond to et avyyevoiro.)

* I find 8iK&<readcu here in Cod. Par. 2712, and by correction in 2820.
(1872.)

84 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 23, i

Notk 4. Verbs like Xe'yoo or (Ittov, when they signify to com-
mand, can be followed by the Aorist (as well as the Present) Infini-
tive in its ordinary sense, referring to the future ; as has beiin 6tated
in § 15, 2, N. 3. E. g.

£2 (piXoi, j'j8rj fiiv Kev iyav elnoifxt. kcu afifuv p.vn(TTr]pc£v is ofiiknv
d KovTivai , now I would command you to join me in hurling, &c.
Od. XXII, 262. Tlapadovvai Xe'yet, he tells us to give her up.
Arist. Av. 1679.

§ 24. The Aorist Participle regularly refers to a
momentary or single action, which is past with refer-
ence to the time of its leading verb. E. g.

Tuvra irotf]<rai/Tes dneXdelv (SovXovTai, having done this, they
wish to go away. Tavra eiTrovres dirr-Xdov, having said this, they
went away. Oi iroXXol cpalvovrai t-vveXdovres, not many appear
to have joined in the expedition. Thuc. I, 10. Botwrol ol ii- "Apvns
dva.o~Ta.vTes ttjv BoicoTiav coKno-av, Boeotians who had been driven
from Arne settled Boeotia. T*huc. I, 12. 'A<£iWo bevpo to nXolov,
yvovTuv tcov KfCpaXXrjvajv, avrnvparTovTos tovtov, .... KarairXtiv,
the Cephallenians having determined to sail in, although this man op-
posed it. Dem. in Zenoth. 886, 1. (Here yvovrav denotes time past
relatively to a<pl<t-To, and avT-nparTovTos time present relatively to
yvovTcov, which is its leading verb. See § 16, 1.

Note 1. When the Aorist Participle is used to contain the
leading idea of the expression, with Xavddveo, to escape the
notice of, Tvyxdvu, to happen, and <pddvco, to get the start of
(§ 112, 2), it does not denote time past with reference to the
verb, but coincides with it in time. Thus iXadov direXOovrfs
means they went away secretly ; ovk eqjdna-av d7re\86vTes, no soon
er were they gone ; Ztvxov daeXdovTcs, they came in by chance, or
they happened to come in. E. g.

OvS" tipa KlpKrjv iXdovres iX-)6oaev, nor did we come without
Circe's knowledge. Od. XII, 17. "EXaQev [avTrjv] dfydevTa ndvTa
Ka\ KaTacpXexdevTa, everything took fire and tvas consumed before
she knew it. Tuuc. IV, 133. "Ecpdn opegdjMevos, he aimed a 'blow
first. II. XVI, 322. Ou yap 'i(p6n p.oi avu.(3do-a f) aTv-^ia, <a\
€7T€xelpr](Tav, for no sooner did this misfortune come upon me, than they
undertook, &c. Dem. Eubul. 1319, 8. Sparta, ov noXXr) eri^e neXpi
'ln-8p.ov irapeXOovara, an army of no great size had by chance
marched as far as the Isthmus. Tuuc. VI, 61. "Etvxc Se kuto. tovto
tov naipov iXdiov, and he happened to come just at that nick of time.
Id. VII, 2. 'OArya npos to. ucXXovTa Tv^e'iv irpdi-avT es (sc.
t)yovvTai), they think they have chanced to accomplish only a littl: in
comparison with their expectations. Id. I, 70.

5 24.] AORISr FARTICIPLE. 35

Bov^oipnv av \adeiv avrov dneXdiov, I shoula tike jo get a\ 'ay
without his knowing it. Xkn. An. I, 3, 17. Tot? avOpunrovs \i)o-op(v
tnintaovres. Id. VII, 3, 43. EvXafie'icrdai TrapaicfXevo-eo-de d\-
KrjXois, prj nepa rod deovros <ro(pa)T(poi yevoptvoi Xijo-ere oiacpdaptv-
rej, lest, having become wiser than is proper, you shall become cor-
rupted before yox. know it. Plat. Gorg. 487 D. (Here ytvopevoi is
an ordinary Aorist, past with reference to the phrase Xqo-ere biafpda-
pevres.) 'OirrroTepos ks (pdrjaiv opei-dpevos XP°a KaAoi/, whichever
shall first hit, &c. II. XXIII, 805.

The last four examples show that this use of the Participle was
allowed even when the whole expression referred to the future.

Note 2. A use of the Aorist Participle similar to that
noticed in Note 1 is found after nepiopdu and tyopdv (nepiddou
and ttrtlBov) to allow, and occasionally after other verbs which
take the Participle in the sense of the Infinitive (§ 112, 1).
In this construction the Aorist Participle seems to express
merely a momentary action, the time being the same that the
Aorist Infinitive would denote if it were used in its place
(§ 23, 1). E. g.

npocrSe^o/xei/o? tovs 'Adnvaiovs KaroKvrja-eiv Trepubelv avrr)v \tj)v yrjvj
Tpndeio-av, dveixev, expecting that they would be unwilling to allot/) their
land to be ravaged, &c. Thuc. II, 18. But in II, 20, we find the
Aorist Infinitive, {j\tti^v ttjv yr)v ovk av trepuoeiv t pnOfjvat, refer-
ring to precisely the same thing. M17 nepudnre r)peas Biacpdapev-
ras, do not allow us to be destroyed. Hdt. IV, 118. Ov pi) a e'ya>
Te/)to^o/j.ai dneXdovra, I will by no means let you go. Arist.
Kan. 500. ErKrjo-av eirideiv .... iprtpnv pev tt)v noXiv yevopevrjv,
rrjv 8e x<°Pav t o p6 ov pt vnv, .... awavra 8e tov noXepov nep\ rrp>
narpida rqv avraiv yiyvopevov. Isoc. Pan. p. 60 D. § 96. (Here
the Aorist Participle denotes the laying waste of the city (as a single
act), while the Presents denote the continuous ravaging of the coun-
try, and the gradual coming on of a state of war. This is precisely
the difference that there would be between the Present and Aorist
Infinitive in a similar construction. See note on the passage, added
to Felton's 3d ed. p. 99.) So irpaBevra T\r)vai, endured to be sold.
Aesch. Agam. 1041 ; and aire i pas erXa, Sept. 754.

Instances occur of the Aorist Participle in this sense even with
other verbs, denoting that in which the action of the verb consists ;
as ev y enolrjaas dvapvrjo-as pe, you did well in reminding me.
Plat. Phaed. 60 C. So KaTa^ntpio-dpevoi, Apol. 30 D.

Remark. If a reference to the past is required in the Participle
with the verbs mentioned in Notes 1 and 2, the Perfect is used.
The Present can of course be used to denote a continued action or
itate. E. g.

*E,Tvy\avov apri n ape i\t)<$>6t es tt)v dpxi)v, they happer.ed to hart

36 USF OF THE TENSES. [§ 24.

iust received their authority. Tnuc. VI, 96. 'Edi> t.? ?;8t *n kcos n
rvyxavi) ttjv ttoXiv. Dem. Cor. 268, 23. 'EXdBopev rjpds avroia
iraidvv ovdev 8 lacpe povr e s • Plat. Crit. 49 B.

Note 3. In such passages as iopoX6yqo-av rols 'Adrjvaiois reix!
re ire pieXovres koi vavs Trapadovres (popov re ra^apevoi,
Tnuc. I, 108, the Aorist Participle is used in its ordinary sense,
being past with reference to the time of the beginning of the peace
to which apoXoyrjaav refers. The meaning is, theg obtained terms
of peace, on condition that they should first (i. e. before the peace
began) tear doion their walls, &c. (Such passages are Thuc. I, 101,
108, 115, 117. See Krugei'i Note on I, 108, and Madvig's Bemer-
kungen, p. 46.)

Note 4. For the use of the Aorist Infinitive and Participle with
av, see § 41, 3. For the Aorist Participle with e'x&>, as a circumlo-
cution for the Perfect, as davpdaas eXa>, see § 112, N. 7. For the
rare use of the Aorist Participle with ecropai as a circumlocution for
the Future Perfect, see § 29, N. 4.

Future.

§ 25. 1. The Future denotes that an action will
take place in time to come ; as ypa^ra, I shall write, or
I shall be ivriting.

Note 1. The action of the Future is sometimes continued,
and sometimes momentary : thus e£w may mean either I shall
have, or / shall obtain ; ap£a>, I shall rule, or / shall obtain
power. E. g.

Upayparevovrai onus apgovaiv, they take trouble to gain power.
Xen. Rep. Laced. XIV, 5. Aiaipereov drives dp^ovo-iv re koi
aptjovrai, we must distinguish between those who are to rule and
those ivho are to be ruled. Plat. Pep. Ill, 412 B.

Note 2. The Future is sometimes used in a gnomic sense, to
denote that something will always happen when an occasion offers.
E.g.

'Avrjp 6 (pevycov nai ndXiv paxh<jeTal- Men AND. Monost. 45.

Note 3. The Future is sometimes used to express what will
hereafter be proved or recognized as a truth. This is analogous to
the use of the Imperfect, § 11, N. 6. E. g.

<&iX6cro<pos rjplu eo~rai 6 peXXiov icciXos Kayados eireaoai <fiv\a£, he
vrill prove to be a philosopher. Plat. Kep. II, 376 C. See Od. II. 270.

Note 4. The Future is sometimes used in questions oj doubi,
where the Subjunctive is more common (§ 88). E. g.

§ 25, 1.] FUTURE INDICATIVE. 37

Tt 8rjra 8pa>pev ; prjrep' t) qbovev or o pe v ; what can we do ? shall
we kill our mother? Eur. El. 967. IIoi tis rpe-^eTai ; whither
shall one turn? Ae^eade, fj diriape v ; will you receive him, or shall
we go away? Plat. Symp. 212 E. EiY e'yco aov (peiaopai; Arist.
Acharn. 312. Ti' ovv iroir)o-opev; norepov eis rrjv jroXiv iravras
tovtovs irapa8e£6peda; what then shall we do ? A re we to receive
all these into the state? Plat. Rep. Ill, 397 D.

Note 5. (a.) The second person of the Future may express a
concession, permission, or obligation, and is often a mild form of
imperative. E. g.

JJpbs ravra irpd^eis olov av QiXvs, you may act as you please.
Soph. O. C. 956. Tldvrais b* tovto 8pdo-e is, but by all means do
this. Arist. Nub. 1352. So in the common imprecations, diroXeio-Oe,
olpat^eade, may you perish, &c. Xeipl 8" oil |au(reis ttots. Eur.
Med. 1320.

(b.) A few instances occur in which the Future Indicative with
ur) expresses a prohibition, like the Imperative or Subjunctive with
u^(§86). E.g.

Tavrnv, av pot -^pr/ade avpftovXcp, <pv\a£ere tt)v ttIotiv, koi pr)
SovXrjo-eo-de el8evai, k. t. A., if you follow my advice, keep this
faith, and do not wish to know, &c. Dem. Aristoc. 659, 15. 'Edu 8e
ev (ppovr)re, koi vvvl tovto (pavepbv noirjaeTe, Kal pn 8 e piav avrnis
d8eiav Scocrere. Lys. Phil. §13. (In the preceding examples
<pvXd£ere and noirjaere belong under a.) Kat rdpa Tevxn ptjt'
dya>vdpxai Tives #17 trover' 'Amatols, prjd' 6 Xvpeoiv epos. Soph. Aj.
572. Sevov d8 t ki) ae ts pn8eir or e Kaipov XafSoiv. Menan. Mon.
397. So perhaps pr]8ev tcovS" epels Kara tttoXiv. AESCH. Sept.
250.

These examples are sometimes explained by supposing an ellipsi?
of oTrcoy from the common construction o7ro>y pr) tovto epels (sc
a-KoiT(i). See § 45, N. 7.

Remark. The use of the Future stated in Note 5 gives th>3
most satisfactory explanation of the Future with ov pi) in prohibi-
tions, especially in such expressions as ov pr) XaXr)o-eis, dXX' aKoXov-
8rjo-tis epe, do not prate, but follow me, and ov prj irpoo-olo-eis Yf'Pa>
prjS" a\js(i nenXcov, do not bring your hand near vie, nor touch mi
garments. See § 89, 2, with Notes.

Note 6. The Future sometimes denotes a present intention,
expectation, or necessity that something shall be done, in which
sense the periphrastic form with peXXa> is more common. E. g.

Tt 8ia(pepovo~i tg>v ei- dvdyKns KaKonadovvTcov, ei ye it e ivr) o~ovo~t
Kat 8 t\j/-r) o~ov ai Kal p tyr) a ova i Kal dypv7rvr)o~ovo~(.v; i. e. if
they are to endure hanger and thirst, &c. Xex. Mem. II, 1, 17.
(Here el peXXovai iret.vr)v Kal 8i\^rjv, &c. would be more common, as
in the last example under § 25, 2.) Aipe nXfjKrpov, el p+x€~l > ra4A*
your spur, if you are going to fight. Arist. Av. 759. The impjj*

38 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 25, 1

tance of this distinction -will be seen when we come to conditional
sentences. (See § 49, 1, N. 3.)

A still more emphatic reference to a present intention is found
in the question rt Xegeis; lohat dost thou mean to say? often found
in tragedy; as*G^ioi, ri X«'|fiy; ^ yap eyyvs eari nov ; EuR. Elec.
1124.

Note 7. For the Future Indicative and Infinitive with av,
see § 37, 2, and § 41, 4. For tho Future Indicative in protasis,
see § 50, 1, N. 1 ; in relative clauses expressing a purpose, &c, see
§ 65, 1 and 2 ; with ov prj, see § 80.

2. A periphrastic Future is formed by fieWa and the
Present or Future (seldom the Aorist) Infinitive. This
form sometimes denotes mere futurity, and sometimes
intention, expectation, or necessity. E. g.

MeXXei tovto ■npdrreiv (or irpdt-eiv), he is about to do this, or he
intends to do this. So in Latin, facturus est for faciet. M e'XX a vftat
8 18 age iv, odev poi f) diafioXr) ye'yovt. Plat. Apol. 21 B. Aerjo-ei
rov toiovtov tivos del eTUOTaTov, el peXXei n TroXireia <r a> £e c 6 at,
if the constitution is to be preserved. Plat. Rep. Ill, 412 A.

Note 1. The Future Infinitive after /x<XXw forms the only
regular exception to the general principle of the use of that
tense. (See § 27, N. 1.) The Future and the Present seem
to be used indiscriminately.

Note 2. The Imperfect (seldom the Aorist) of /te'XXw is
used to express a past intention or expectation. E. g.

KvkXco^, ovk dp eueXXcs dvaXicifios dvbpbs eraipovs edpevai ev
crnrji y\a<pvp<o, you surely were not intending to eat, &c. Od. IX, 475
'EpeXXov <r apa Kivrjo-eiv eyd>, I thought I should start you off.
Arist. Nub. 1301. See II. II. 36.

§ 26. The Future Optative in classic Greek is used
only in indirect discourse after secondary tenses, to
represent a Future Indicative of the direct discourse.
Even here the Future Indicative is very often retained
In the indirect discourse. (See § 69.) E. g.

'Yirenrcov TaXXa on airos raKti npdgoi, faero, having suggested
as to what remained, that he would himself attend to the affairs there,
fee departed. Tnuc. I, 90. (Here npd^oi represents npagco of the
direct discourse, which might have been expressed by irpd£ei in
the indirect quotation. See in the same chapter of Thucydides,
anoKpivdufvoi on t e p^rov cr iv , having r plied that they would send,

§ 26.] FUTURE OPTATIVE. 3?

w hero ntptyoit v might have been used.) E t rwa obevynvra X t) ty o t r o ,
nponyopevev 6Yi ws iro\epiu> % prjo-oiro. Xen. Cyr. Ill, 1, 3.
(Here the announcement was el nva \-r]-^opai, <bs 7roXf/Lu'&> xpwopai.)
E\eyei> otl eroipos fir) Tj-ye'iadai avrols els to AeXra, i'vda TroAXa
Xtj-^oivto. Xen. An. VII, 1, 33. AipeBevres f'(p' wre i-vyy peroral
vopovs, KaS" ovcrnvas tro'K iTevao ivto , having been chosen Jo?' the
purpose of making a code of laws, by which they were to govern. Xen.
Hell. H, 3, 11. (Here we have an indirect expression of the idea
of the persons who chose them, of which the direct form is found
just before (II, 3, 2), e8o£e TpiaKovTa avSpas eXicrOat, oi tovs narpiovs
vofiovs £vyypa\j/ovcri, ko.6' ovs TTokiTfvo-ovai.)

Remark. The term indirect discourse here, as elsewhere, must
be understood to include, not only all cases of ordinary indirect
quotation, introduced by on or as or by the Accusative and the
Infinitive, after verbs of saying and thinking, but also all dependent
clauses, in any sentence, which indirectly express the thoughts of
any other person than the writer or speaker, or even former thoughts
of the speaker himself. (See § 68.)

Note 1. The Future Optative is sometimes used in final
and object clauses after secondary tenses ; but regularly only
with oTrwr or onus pi] after verbs of striving, &c, occasionally
with pq (or on-oK /xjj) after verbs of fearing, and very rarely (if
ever) in pure final clauses. As these clauses express the pur-
pose or fear of some person, they are in indirect discourse
according to the Remark above. (See § 44, 2.)

(a.) The most common case of the Future Optative in sen-
tences of this class is with Siras or Snas p.r) after secondary
tenses of verbs signifying to strive, to take care, and the like ;
the Future Indicative in this case being the most common
form in the construction after primary tenses, which here cor-
responds to the direct discourse. Thus, if any one ever said
or thought, o-kotto) onus tovto y e v tj o~ f t a i , /am taking care that
this shall happen, we can now say, referring to that thought,
io-KoiTd o7rco? tovto yevi)o-oiTo, he was taking care that this
should happen, changing the Future Indicative to the Future
Optative (§ 77). E. g.

Eo-Koxrei 6 Mei/etchr)? onas p-r) <?o~oito anais, dXX' eaotTO avTa
oo~tis £u>vTa re yn poT po(pno- 01 xa\ T€\evTr)o~avTa 6d\}/oi avrdv,
<ai fis tqv eneiTa %p6vov tci vopi£6p.eva ai>TU> 770117 a o 1 . LsAE. de
Menecl. Hered. § 10 (11). '~Ep.rjxavap.eda onus pndeis ....
•yvaxrojTo , vopiovo-i Se iravTes, k. t. X., we were striving that no one
should know, &c, but that all should think, &c. Plat. Tim. 18 C
(Here the second verb, w/ttoCai, is retained in the Future Indica

40 USE OF THE TENSES. [_§ 26.

tive, while the other, yvuxrerai, is changed to the Optative.) See
al?0 Plat. Tim. 18 E. MijSeV o'iov aXXo prjxavacrdcu, fj ottos ....
8(£oivto. Plat. Rep. IV, 430 A. (See § 15, 3.) 'E7re/i«Xfiro
fie orrats prjre atriTot pf]Te i'ittotoi irore ecroivTO- Xen. Cyr. VIII, 1,
43. Other examples are Plat. Apol. 36 C ; Xen. Cyr. VIII,
1, 10, Hell. VII, 5, 3 ; Isae. de Philoct. Hered. p. 59, 41. § 35.

In this construction the Future Indicative is generally retained,
even after secondary tenses. See § 45.

(b.) The Future Optative is seldom found with prj or ottcoj
fi-q after secondary tenses of verbs of fearing, as here the
Future Indicative is not common after primary tenses. E. g.

Oil fiovov irepi rrjs pacravov teat ttjs Siktjs eSedoUei, dXXa kcu -nepi
tov ypappaTeiov, ottos prj vno tov Meve^ivov o-vXXrj (p 6 fj (to it o .
Isoc. Trapez. p. 363 B. § 22. (Here the fear was expressed origi-
nally by ottos pf] 0~vXXr]Cp6i]aeTai.) KaTtftaXe to 'HpaKXeoTon Tel^os,
oil tovto (pofioiipevos, pf] Tives . . . . tto pe vao ivto em rf)v eKeivo'l
bvvap.iv. Xen. Hell. VI, 4, 27. 'AXXa kcu toiis Beovs av edeiaas
7rapaiciv8vvei>eiv, pi) oi/K opdos civto Troirjaois. Plat. Euthyphr.
15 D.

Here the Present or Aorist Optative, corresponding to the same
tenses of the Subjunctive after primary tenses, is generally used.
See § 46.

(c.) In pure Final clauses (§ 44, 1) it would be difficult to find
an example of onus with the Future Optative, in which the weight
of Mss. authority did not favor some other reading. Such is the
case in Xen. Cyr. V, 4, 17, and in Dem. Phaenipp. 1040, 20. Still,
there can be little doubt of the propriety of such a construction, as
the Future Indicative with Sttos was in use (though rare) after
primary tenses. (§ 44, 1, N. 1.)

The single example cited for the use of the simple pf] with the
Future Optative in a pure final clause is Plat. Iiep. HI, 393 E:
'Ayapepvov fjyplaivev, evreXXopevos vvv re clmevai Ka\ avdis pf] eXdelv,
pf] ai/Tcp to re o-KT]7rTpov kcu ra tov 8eoi> o-TeppaTa oiiK e ira p Ke cr o t,.
(Here there is another reading, enapKecreiev, of inferior authority,
which is adopted by Bekker.) If the reading eVa/Wcroj. is retained
(as it is by most editors), it can be explained only by assuming that
Plato had in his mind as the direct discourse pf] oiiK emxpKto-ei.
We must remember that Plato is here paraphrasing Homer (II. I,
25-28), and by no means literally. The Homeric fine is Mi; m
toi oil xpaicrpr] o~KTJTTTpov Ka\ areppa deolo.

The other final particles, ha and us, which seem never to take
the Future Indicative, of course do not allow the Future Optative.
(See § 44, 1, X 1.)

Note 2. Many authors, especially Thucydides, show a decided
preference for the Future Indicative, even where the Future Opta-
tive might be used. As the tense was restricted to indirect di*

§ 27.] FUTURE INFINITIVE. 41

course, it was a less common form than the Present and Aorist, and
for that reason often avoided even when it was allowed.

§ 97. The Future Infinitive denotes an action
which is future with reference to the leading verb.
E.g.

"Eo-eadai (prjcri, he says that he icill be ; i'aeo-dai e<f)r], he said that he
would be ; eo-ecrdai (prjaei, he will say that he will be. TIoWovs y*
eo-eo-dai eXeyov roi/s iOcXrjo-ovras, they said that there would be many
who would be willing. Xen. Cyr. Ill, 2, 26.

Note 1. The most common use of the Future Infinitive
is in indirect discourse, after verbs of saying, thinking, &c, to
represent a Future Indicative of the direct discourse. (See
the examples above.) In other constructions, the Present and
Aorist Infinitive, being indefinite in their time, can always
refer to the future if the context requires it (§§ 15, 1 ; 23, 1) ;
so that it is seldom necessary to use the Future, unless
emphasis is particularly required.

Therefore, after verbs and expressions whose signification
refers a dependent Infinitive to the future, but which yet do
not introduce indirect discourse, as verbs of commanding,
wishing, &c. (§ 15, 2, N. 1), the Present or Aorist Infinitive
(not the Future) is regularly used. Thus the Greek would
express they ivish to do this not by fiovXovTai tovto noiqo-ttv,
but by jBuCXovrai tovto itoitlv (or Troirjaai). See examples
under §§ 15, 1 and 23, 1. So, when the Infinitive follows
wore and other particles which refer it to the future, or is used
to denote a purpose without any particle (§ 97), — and when
it is used as a noun with the article, even if it refers to future
time, — it is generally in the Present or Aorist, unless it is
intended to make the reference to the future especially em-
phatic. See examples in Chapter V.

A single regular exception to this principle is found in the
Future Infinitive after fii\\a> (§ 25, 2).

Note 2. On the other hand, when it was desired to make
the reference to the future especially prominent, the Future
Infinitive could be used in the cases mentioned in Note 1,
contrary to the general principle.

(a.) Thus we sometimes find the Future Infinitive aftei

/-Atc/v^- •.vj.—.^-r-- / ? y^/^V' S^t—^tt *-"&-'

hOu a Ha /*«*-»>%, ^St-r^ty1^ " [i V

verbs and expressions signifying to w^s/?, Jo 6e unwilling, to***
C" intend, to ask, to be able, and the like, where we should expect.,
the .Present or Aorist. This was particularly a favorite con-
struction with Thucydides. E. g. ^

/^ \ I E8er]6rfcrav 8e Ka\ tu>u Meyapecov vavo~\ acpas | v/urp orr e /x^/l* ti> /I

^ / : Tiiuc. I, 27. 'EfiovXovTO npoTi people ad ai. Id. VI, 57. To^-~

tV>"

U*-*

oro'/xa ai/ro£i Siei/ooOiro kXt) ere iv. Id. VII, 56. 'Ecpie'pevoi pev Tfj$">
irao~r)s ap£eiv, (Sorjdeiv fie a/xa ev7Tpena>s fiovXopevoi role iavriov S,
£vyyeve(Ti Kal gvppdxois. Id. VI, 6. (Here j3or]6elv follows the rule.)
Toil ruls vavcrl prj ddvpelv eTTiyetpijo-eii', to prevent them from being fa
without spirit to attack them in ships. Id. VII, 21. Ovr djroKaXv-v
aeiv dvuaroi ovres- Id. Ill, 28. Ei tis els tovto dvafidXXeTat. 71-0117- '
ere iv tci fieotra, if any one postpones doing his duty as far as this L
Dem. 01. Ill, 31, 1. (The ordinary construction would be dvaftdX fa
XeTai Troieiv Or noirjaai.) Ovre tcov npoyovcav pepvrjcrdai. [fiel] oijTt
twv Xeyoirreov dvi^eaOai, vopov Te dfjaeiv Kai ypdyfreiv , k. t. X.
Dem. F. L. 345, 27. (Here we have 8el e^aeiv.) UoXXov Sea
ipavrov ye d8iKT]cre iv Kal kut epavrov epelv avros. Plat. Apol.
37 B. In Arist. Nub. 1130 we find, 'Laws povXrjcreTat kov ev
AlyiinTO) Tvxeiv a>v pdXXov rj Kplvai KaKws, perhaps he will wish that
he migld (if possible) find himself by some chance in Egypt, rather than
wish to judge unfairly. (Here rvxeiv av is used in nearly the same
sense as the Future in the second example. In this example and
6ome others here given there seems to be an approach to the con-
struction of indirect discourse.)

See also Thuc. IV,^^ and 121 ; V, 35 ; VII, 11 ; VIII, 55 and

^\ 74. In several of these passages the Mss. vary between the Future aj

&*^( and Aorist, although the weight of authority is for the Future. See {
r Ji Kriiger's Note on Tiiuc. I, 27, where the passages of Thucydides
a f„//-^are collected. 0

' f'H* (b.) In like manner, the Future Infinitive is occasionally

^~vp used for the Present or Aorist, after <So-re and in the other

a constructions mentioned in Note 1, to make the idea of futuritv

-j^l more prominent. E. g.

UpoKaXeadpevos es Xoyovs 'lirirlav, ware rjv pr)8ei> dpecrKov Xeyrj, J
■rrdXiu auTov KUTaarrjaeiv es to ret^os. on condition that he
would in that case restore him. Thuc. Ill, 34. Toils oprjpovs nape-
8ocrav ra'Apyeioiv 8^pa> 81a Tavra 8 taxprjo- e cr 6 at , that they might
put them to death. Tiiuc. VI, 61. So irevcreadai, III, 26. 'EXnl8i
to depaves tov KaTopBucre iv e'niTptyavres, having committed to hope
what was uncertain in the prospect of success. Thuc. H, 42. (Here
Ka.Topda>aeiv is more explicit than the Present KaropdoZv would be
to depaves tov KaTopdovv would mean simply what ivas uncertain in
regard to success.) To pev ovv e^eXiy^etv avrov 6appS> Kai ndw
jvioTeva,, I have courage and great confidence as to my convicting him.
Dem. F. L. 342, 2. (Here most of the ordinary Mss. read egeXeyxetv.)

1

§ 29.] FUTURE PERFECT. 43

Note 3. The Future Infinitive is the regular form after
verbs of hoping, expecting, promising, &c, since it stands here
in indirect discourse (§ 15, 2, N. 1). E. g.

Tpaaiv 8* e\irtTo 6vpos vrjas evm pfjcre iv icreveetv & rjptoat
A^aioi)?. H. XV, 701. 'Ytto t '4o~\(to koX Karevevcrev 8 acre fit vai.
H. XIII, 368. Hal8d re o~6v irpocrtoKa roi air ovocttt] <t e iv . HdT.
1,42. Kai TtpocrboKav %pi] 8eo-n6areiv Zrjvos Tiva ; AESCII. Prom.
930. "HXTrt^fi/ yap paXr}v eato-dai. TllUC. IV, 71. 'Ev e\iri8i
<iiv ra rei)(i] aiprjae iv. Id. VII, 46. Tov arpartjyov npooSoKO) ravra
iv pat-e iv . Xex. An. Ill, 1, 14. 'Ek tovtov vneo-^eTO firj^av^v
■napk^eiv. Id. Cyr. VI, 1, 21. 2v yap vntaxov {nTrjcreiv . PjLAT.
Rep. IV, 427 E. So duuftoroi 1} nrjv&tje iv, Soph. Phil. 594.

Yet all of these verbs can take the Aorist or Present Infinitive
without apparent change of meaning. They form an intermediate
class between verbs which take the Infinitive in indirect discourse
and those which do not. For examples of the Present and Aorist,
see J 15, 2, N. 2 ; and § 23, 2, N. 2.

§ 28. The Future Participle denotes an action
which "is future with reference to the leading verb.
E.g.

Tovto ttoitjctcov ep^erai, rfk6tv or e'Xeucrrrat, he comes, went, or
will come, for the purpose of doing this . Oi'Sa avTov tovto TToiTjo-ovra,
I know that he icill do this : ol8a tovto noirjo-av, I know that I shall
do this. So jjSeif airov tovto noirjaovra, I knew that he would do
this.

Note. For the various uses of the Future Participle, and ex-
amples, see Chapter VI.

Future Perfect.

§ 29. The Future Perfect denotes that an action
will bf already finished at some future time. It is thus
a Perfect transferred to the future. E. g.

Kat fxe cav t^e\ey^vs, ovk axdecdrjcropal croi, dXXa fieytaros dep-
ytTrjs Trap ipo\ dvayeypdyj/ei., you will have been enrolled as the
greatest benefactor. Plat. Gorg. 506 C. *Hv 8e pi) yevrjTai, pdrrjv
tpol k( kXuv <r tr at , o~ii 8' fy^avav T€ 6 vr\ £ e cs ■ I shall then have
had my whipping for nothing, and you will have died. Arist. Nub-
1435

Note 1 The Future Perfect often denotes the conth«

44 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 29.

uance of an action, or the permanence of its results, in future
time. E. g.

Tfjs 8vvdp.ea>s is di8iov tols emyiyvopevois pvTjpn Kara'Ke'Ke i
vWrat, the memory of our power will be left to our posterity forever.
Thuc. II, 64. (Compare § 18, 2.)

Note 2. The Future Perfect sometimes denotes the cer-
tainty or likelihood that an action will immediately take place,
which idea is still more vividly expressed by the Perfect (§ 17,
Note 6). E. g.

El 8e Trape\6a>v ei? oo~tio~ovv hvvairo 8i8d£ai, iras 6 Trapow (j)6^oi
XeXvo-erat, all the present fear will be at once dispelled. Dem.
Symmor. 178, 17. (Here the inferior Mss. have Xe'Xvrm, which
would have the same force, like 6'XwXa quoted in § 17, N. 6.)
$>pa£e, Kal tt en pd£erai , speak, and it shall be no sooner said than
done. Arist. Plut. 1027. Evtiiis 'Apiaios dcpeo-T^et, a><rre (plXos
rjp.lv ovbels XeXei'^erai. Xen. An. II, 4, 5.

Note 3. The Future Perfect can be expressed by the
Perfect Participle and eo-opau In the active voice this com-
pound form is the only one in use, except in a few verbs
E.g.

Av ravT el8aipev, Ka\ ra 8eovra eaop.e da eyva>Kores <ai Xoycoi>
paraicov dirt] XX aype voi , we shall have already resolved to do our
duty and shall have been freed from vain reports. Dem. Phil. I, 54,
22. (See § 17, N. 2).

Note 4. A circumlocution with the AorJst Participle and
ecropai is sometimes found, especially in the poets. E. g.

Oi3 (naTTTjaas eo~ei; SOPH. O. T. 1146. AvnrjBels earei. Soph. O
C. 816.

Note 5. (a.) When the Perfect is used in the sense of a Present
(§ 1 7, N. 3), the Future Perfect is the regular Future of that tense.
E.g.

KeKXTjo-opcu, pepvTjo-opai, dfeo-TTji-oi^I shall be named, I shall re-
fuember, J shall withdraw, &c.

(b.) With many other verbs, the Future Perfect differs very
slightly, if at all, from an ordinary Future. Thus, ■neirpdo-opau is the
regular Future Passive of iwrpdo-Ka>. Still, where there is another
form, the Future Perfect is generally more emphatic, and may be
explained by Note 1 or Note 2.

Note 6. The Future Perfect of the dependent moods is rare,
except m the verbs referred to in Note 5. When it occurs, it
presents no peculiarity, as it bears the same relation to the Indicative
which the corresponding forms of the Future would bear. L. g.

§ 30, l.J GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES. 45

Tavra ($>rj(ri) Treir page a 6 at 8voiv f] Tpvav fjpepav, he say* that
the»e things icill have been accomplished within two or three days.
Dem. F. L. J64, 18. (Here the direct discourse was nenpa^eTai )

Remark. It must be remembered that, in most cases in which
the Latin or the English would use a Future Perfect, the Greeks
use an Aorist or even'Perfect Subjunctive. (See § 18, 1, and § 20,
N. 1, with the examples.)

Gnomic and Iterative Tenses.

§ 30. 1. The Aorist and sometimes the Perfect In-
dicative are used in animated language to express
general truths. These are called the gnomic Aorist and
the gnomic Perfect, and are usually to be translated by
our Present.

These tenses give a more vivid statement of general truths,
by employing a distinct case or several distinct cases in past
time to represent (as it were) all possible cases, and implying
that what has occurred will occur again under similar circum-
stances. E. g.

Kardav' 6pu>s o r depybs avhp 5 re iroXXd e'opyws, both alike must
die. II. IX, 320. "Oare Kcii aXKipov av8pa (pofiel Kai d(pe [\ero
piktjv, who terrifies, and snatches away. II. XVII, 177. (See Note 2.)
Bi'a Be Kai peydXavxov ea-(paXev ev XP°vci>- PIND- Pyth. VIII, 20.
2o(poi be peXXovTa rpiralov avepov epaOov, ov8' vnb Kepdei jSXd/Se v .
PiND. Nein. VII, 25. Kai 8fj (piXov tis eKrav* dyvoias vtto. Aesch.
Supp. 499. AXXa ra roiavra els pev anai; teal /3payvj/ xpnvov
aiTf'xei, Kai a(p68pa ye ijvOnaev eni Tals eXnla-iv, av TVXlh T<p
Xpova 8e (pap drat Kai nepi avra Karappei. Dem. 01. II, 21, 1.
(See Note 2.) Hi> apa .... a(paXa>o-iv, dvTeXirio-avTes aXXa e'nXf]-
paaav rbv xpeiav, they supply the deficiency (as often as one occurs).
XHUC. I, 70. *Hv 8e tis tovtcov tl napaftalvr], ^rjpiav avrois etve-
Beaav, i. e. they impose a penalty upon every one who transgresses.
Xen. Cyr. I, 2, 2. Aeivwv t anpa irvevparaip e koi piere arevovra
Itovtov. SOPH. Aj. 674. Mi" f]pepa top pev KadelXev vtyodev, top
8' f)p' ai/co. Eun. Ino. Fr. 424. "Orav 6"Epcos eyKparearepos yeirqrai,
8ia<pde ipe i re noXXa Kai rj 8 1 Kn a e v. Plat. Symp. 188 A. "Otok
tis coanep ovtos icr^ucrr/, n Trpunrj 7rpo(pacns Kai piKpbv irralapa anavra
dvexaiTia-e Kai hieXvcrev . Dem. 01. II, 20, 27. Enei8dv tis
nap epov pddrj, edv fx£u ftovXnrai, dnoBt 8a>Kev 6 e'y&> ivparTopai
apyvpiov, eav 8e pfj, e'X6a>v els lepbv 6p6(ras, bcrov av (pi) <i£ia elvai to

gj6f)para, toctovtov KaTedn Kev . Plat. Prot. 328 B. (Here the
erf'ect and Aorist are used together, in nearly the same sense, he
pays.) IloXXoi 8id 86^av Kai noXtTiKbv 8vvapiv peydXa kqko. neivdvda

46 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 30. 1

<riv, i. e. many always have suffered, and many do suffer. Xen
Mem. IV, 2, 35. T6 Se pfj epnoSoov dvavrayaviarco evvoia reri
HTjTat. THUC. II, 45.

Remark. The gnomic Perfect is not found in Homer.

Note 1. The sense, as well as the origin of the construc-
tion, is often made clearer by the addition of such words as
voWaKis, tj§n, or ovna>. Such examples as these form a simply
transition from the common to the gnomic use of these
tenses : —

IloXXa a-Tparoneba rjbrj e ire (rep vn eXaacrovcov, i. e. many cases
have already arisen, implying, it often happens. Thuc. II, 89. MeA-
Xcov y" larpos, ry voaa 8i8ovs XP°v0Vi Idaar' fjbn fiaWov fj Ttpatv
Xpda. Fur. Frag. 1057. JJoWiiKis e^au tls ovBe TavajKala vvv avpiuv
en^oi/Tvo-', oSore xdrepovs rpefatv, i. e. cases have often occurred
in which such a man has become rich the next day, &c. Philem. Fr.
Inc. 29. 'Advpovvres avdpes ovnco rpoVatoi/ tarna-av. Plat. Crit.
108 C. Ovdels enXovTrjO-fu Ta^ecos oikulos wv. MenA-ND. Col. Fr.
6. (Kriiger, § 53, 10, A. 2.)

Note 2. General truths are more commonly expressed in
Greek, as in English, by the Present. (See § 10, N. 1.)
Examples of the Pvesent and Aorist, used in nearly the same
sense in the same sentence, are given under § 30, 1. The
gnomic Aorist is, however, commonly distinguished from the
Present, either by being more vivid, or by referring to an
action which is (by its own nature) momentary or sudden,
while the Present (as usual) implies duration. See the second
and sixth examples under § 30, 1.

Note 3. An Aorist resembling the gnomic Aorist is very
common in Homer, in similes depending on past tenses, where
it seems to stand by assimilation to the leading verb. It is
usually to be translated by the Present. E. g.

*Hpnre 8' ws ore rtj SpCj rjpnrev, and he fell, as when an oak falls
(literally, as when an oak once fell). II. XVI, 389.

Note 4. It is very doubtful whether the Imperfect was ever
used in a gnomic sense, so as to be translated by the Present.

Note 5. An instance of the gnomic Aorist in the Infinitive u
fcund in Sopn. Aj. 1082: —

"On-ov 8' vftpl((Lv Bpdv ff , a /3ovXerat, irapfj,

TavTTjV vopi£e ti)v itoXiv \pova irore

E£ ovpioip dpapovaav «? fivBbv nee el p.

§ 30, 2.] GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES.

47

Here ■necrtiv represents eirta-tv in the direct discourse ; the sense
being, believe that that city must at some time fall. (See Schneide-
win's note.) So probably in Plat. Phaedr. 232 B : ^yovpeva ....
diaqbopds yevofiei'Tjs koivtjv dpcporepois aar a arrival rrjv a-vp(popdv.

Even the Aorist Participle seems to be occasionally used in the
same sense; as in TiiUC. VI, 16 : oldarovs roiovrovs ev plv ra> mar
ai/Tovs (3la) Xvnr/povs ovras, rcov Se eireira dvdpanrav npoo-no'ij)<jtv
gvyyeveias rial <a\ pfj ovaav KaraXnvovras , I know that such men,
although in their own lifetimes they are offensive, yet often leave to some
who come after them a desire to claim connexion with them, even where
'.here is no ground for it.

Note 6. The gnomic Perfect is found in the Infinitive in Dem.
Ol.II, 23, 14: ei S<f ris o-a>(ppcov 77 Si'/coior, . . . . nape a a 6 at. koL
ev ovdfvos tivat ucpei rov roiovrov ((pt]criv), such a man is always thrust
aside, and is of no account.

2. The Imperfect and Aorist are sometimes used
with the particle av to denote a customary action,
being equivalent to our phrase in narration, " he would
often do this,'''' or " he used to do it." E. g.

Ain pdtrojv av avrois ri Xtyoiev, / used to ask them (I would ask
them) what they said. Plat. Apol. 22 B. Ei' rives idoiev^jrri_Tovs I,
(r<f>erfgovs eiriKparovvras , q vedd^ajTaa v uy, whenever any saw their i,
friends vn anyway victorious^Uiey would be encouraged (i. e. they were]'
encouraged in all such cases). Tuuc VII, 71. IloXXa/as rjKov-
rapev civ ri kokcos vpds ftovXevadpevovs peya npaypa, we used very *^ ^'T
.often Jo hear you, &c. Aiust. Lysist. 511. Ei ris aira ivepi rov //vHv\—
\dvTi\eyoi prjdev e^av aa<pes Xeyeif, ejri rf]v vnodeuiv tiravijyev a v JL <JV #"fcO
ndvra rov \6yov, he always brought the whole discussion back to t/ie ^- "^

main point. Xen. Mem. IV, 6, 13. 'Onore 7rpoo-/3Xe>eie nvas tov tv fl^ki

rais rd^eai, rore pev einev av, a avdpes, k. t. X rore <3' av iv

SXXois av eXe£ev. Xen. Cyr. VII, 1, 10.

This construction must be carefully distinguished from that with
av in ordinary apodosis (§ 49, 2). For the iterative Imperfect
transferred to the Infinitive, see § 41, N. 3.

Note 1. (a.) The Ionic iterative Aorist in -ctkov and
•(TKoprjv expresses the repetition of a momentary action ; the
Imperfect with the same endings expresses the repetition of a ey /Q/+6
continued action. E. £. ° ^^

AXXou? pev yap naiSas ipovs nodas cokvs 'AxiXXevs 7re pvacrx\ ov 1^-^ >>
ny eXecrxe. II. XXIV, 751. "Okcoj eXdoi 6 NflXos em. 6kto> "TC*^ *'
nijX(as, ap8ea-Ke Aiyvnrov rfjv evepde Me'pcpios. HdT. II, 13. f j f ^j

(b.) In Homer, however, the iterative forms are sometimes ^~)£-(0~fr
used in nearly or quite the same sense as the ordinary forms; % ji\'cS
thus tvitt in Homer does not differ from ?}v. E. 2 1 T ^

UAr.

&-*j

-t*~

/0T-1-

48 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 30, 2.

Aarjp avr tubs eo~ne Kvvamihos, et nor '(r)v ye. H. Ill, 180. 9Os ol
tXtjctIov t£e, pakuTTa 8e piv (p tXe e o~ Kf v. Od. VII, 171.

Note 2. Herodotus sometimes uses the iterative forms in -o-kov
and -aKo/jLTjv vith liv, in the construction of § 30, 2. (He uses the
iterative Aarist in only two passages, in both with av.) E. g.

<&oiTeovcra K\ale crKe av /cat ohv pe cntero . Hdt. Ill, 119. *Es
rourovs okcos cXdoi 6 2<vXrjs, 7"/)p pev arpaTirjv /caraXe in e a" /ce «V rai
xpoaarelo), i vtos 8e okcos eX6oi es to ret^os . . . Xa/3eo"7<e ai»
EXX7i/t'5« sVi%a. Hdt. IV, 78.

Dependence of Moods and Tenses.

§31. 1. In dependent sentences, where the con-
struction allows either a Subjunctive or an Optative,
the Subjunctive is used if the leading verb is primary ,
and the Optative if it is secondary. (See § 8, 2.) E. g.

Uparrovo-iv a av (3ov\avTai, they do whatever they please: but
InpaTTov a. fiovXoivro, they did whatever they pleased.

2. In like manner, where the construction allows
3ither an Indicative or an Optative, the Indicative
follows primary, and the Optative follows secondary
tenses. E. g.

Aeyovcriv 6Vt tovto fiovXovrai, they say that they wish for this t
e/\e£av on tovto fioiXoivTo, they said that they wished for this.

Note 1. To these fundamental rules we find one special
exception : —

In indirect discourse of all kinds (including sentences
denoting a purpose or object after Iva, /xij, &c), either an In-
dicative or a Subjunctive may depend upon a secondary
tense, in order that the mood and tense actually used by the
speaker may be retained in the indirect discourse. (See § 69.)
E.g.

EtVei/ on /3 o v X e r a t , for elire v on /3 o v X o t r o , he said that he
wished (i. e. he said /3ovXop.ai). 'E<£o/3en-o p.rj tovto yevnTai, for
e'0o/3etro urj tovto yevoiro, he feared lest it should happen (i. e. he
thought, (pofiovpai p-fj yevi]Tai). (See § 44, 2.)

Note. 2. An only apparent exception to these rules occurs
when either an apodosis with av, or a verb expressing a wish, stands
in a dependent, sentence. In both these cases the form which would

§ 32.] DEPENDENCE OF MOODS AND TENSES. 49

have been required in the apodosis or in the wish, if it had been
independent, is retained without regard to the leading verb. It
will be obvious from the principles of such sentences (Chapter IV),
that a change of mood would in most cases change the whole
nature of the apodosis or wish. E. g.

'Eyo> ovk oi§' onojs civ tis cracpecrrepov in 18 e i £e lev , I do not
know how any one could show this more clearly. Dem. Aph. I, 828,
23. Ael yap eKeivca tovto ev rfj yvaipn TTapaaTrjcrai, cos vpels eV ti]s
dpe\eias ravrrjs .... 'icrcos av 6 p pi) era ire . Dem. Phil. I, 44, 25.
Et 5' vpels ciWo ri yvojerecrde, o pi) ye voir o, riva otecrde avTr)v yj/vxqv
€%eiv; Dem. Aph. II, 842, 14.

The learner needs only to be warned not to attempt to apply the
rules § 31, 1, 2 to such cases as these. See § 44, 1, N. 3 (5).

Note 3. A few other unimportant exceptions will be noticed
as they occur. See, for example, § 44, 2, Note 2.

Remark. It is therefore of the highest importance to ascertain
which tenses (in all the moods) are to be considered primary, and
which secondary ; that is, which are to be followed, in dependent
sentences, by the Indicative or Subjunctive, and which by the
Optative, where the rules of § 31 are applied. The general prin-
ciple, stated in § 8, 2, applies chiefly to the Indicative, and even
there not without some important modifications.

§ 33. 1. In the Indicative the general rule holds, that the
Present, Perfect, Future, and Future Perfect are primary
tenses, and the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist are secondary
tenses.

2. But the historical Present is a secondary tense, as it
refers to the past ; and the gnomic Aorist is a primary tense,
as it refers to the present.

See the first example under § 10, 2, where an historical
Present is followed by the Optative ; and the sixth, seventh,
and eighth examples under § 30, 1, where gnomic Aorists are
followed by the Subjunctive.

3. (a.) The Imperfect Indicative in protasis or apodosis
denoting the non-fulfilment of a condition (§ 49, 2), when it
refers to present time, is a primary tense. E. g.

*E y p a <p o v av rfkiKa. vpas tv it o i rj o~ w , el ev rfbeiv, I would tell you
in my letter how great services I would render you, if I knew, &c*
Dem. F. L. 353, 24. Haw civ ecpofiovprjv, pr] diropr] a cocri \6ycov.
Plat. Symp. 193 E. ^'Ecpo^ovprjv av crcpobpa Xe'yeiJ/, pr) So'^w,
k. t. X., 1 should be very much afraid to speak, lest I should seem, &c.
Plat. Theaet. 143 E. Tair av rjbr) Xeyetf eVe^eipow, 1v eldrjre<
Dem. Aristocr. 623, 11.

3 D

60 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 32

(b.) On the other hand, the Aorist Indicative in the same
sense in protasis and apodosis, and also the Imperfect when it
refers to the past, are secondary tenses. E. g.

'AAAn Kai tovs 6eovs av e'Seiiray 7rapaiciv?>vveveiv, pfj ovk up&as avrb
7roir]crois • 1*LAT. Euthyph. 15 D. 'AXA' ov8e ptra iroWcov paprv-
pmv djroftiftovs elKjj tis ai> enicrTevev, iv ei tis ylyvoiro dia<fiopa,
KoplaaaOai pq8i<x>s nap' vpiv Svvqrai. Dem. Onet. I, 869, 18.
(Here the Subjunctive dwTjrai will be explained by § 44, 2, but the
Optative shows that the leading verb is secondary.)*

§ 33. All the tenses of the Subjunctive and Imperative
are primary, as they refer to present or future time. E. g.

"Eire a 6' ony av tis t] y jj r a t , follow whithersoever anyone leads
the way. Thuc. II, 11.

§ 34. As the Optative refers sometimes to the future and
Bometimes to the past, it exerts upon a dependent verb some-
times the force of a primary, and sometimes that of a secondary
tense.

When it refers to the past, as in general suppositions after
tl and relatives, depending on past tenses (§§ 51 and 62), it is
of course secondary, like any other form which refers to past
time.

When it refers to the future, it is properly to be considered
-primary. In many cases, however, a double construction is
allowed : on the principle of assimilation the Greeks preferred
the Optative to the Subjunctive in certain clauses depending

* It is difficult to determine the question whether the secondary tenses
of the Indicative in this construction (§ 32, 3) are primary or secondary in
their effect on the dependent verh, as sentences of nearly every class de-
pending upon them take by assimilation a secondary tense of the Indica-
tive. (So in most final clauses, § 44, 3 ; in protasis after ei, § 49, 2 ; and
after relatives, § 64.) There remain only indirect quotations, and the few
cases of final clauses that do not take the Indicative by assimilation , but
both of these have the peculiarity of allowing the Indicative and Subjunc-
tive, when the writer pleases, to stand as they were in the direct discourse,
instead of being changed to the Optative. Madvig [Bemerkungen, p. 20)
classes them all as primary forms, considering the two examples of the
Optative after the Aorist, quoted above, § 32, 3 (b), as exceptions. But
these cannot be accounted for on the supposition that both Aorist and
Imperfect are primary : they are, however, perfectly regular, if we con-
sider the present forms primary and the past forms secondary (as in other
cases) ; while the other examples in which the Indicative or Subjunctive
follows the past forms may all be explained on the principle of § 31,
Note I.

§ 34.] DEPENDENCE OF MOODS AND TENSES. 51

on an Optative, the dependent verb referring to the future like
the leading verb, and differing little from a Subjunctive in
such a position. This assimilation takes place regularly in
protasis and conditional relative clauses depending on an
Optative ; but seldom in final and object clauses after <W, ottu>s,
/irj, &c, and very rarely in indirect quotations or questions.

The three classes of sentences which may depend on an
Optative referring to the future are treated separately : —

1. (a.) In protasis and in conditional relative sentences

depending upon an Optative which refers to the future, the

Optative is regularly used to express a future condition, rather

than the Subjunctive. E. g.

E'lrjs (poprjros ovk av, el tt pdacr ois KaXcos, you would he unendur-
able, if you should ever prosper. Aesch. Prom. 979. 'Av8p\ 8e k
ovk e'l^eie ueyas Te\ap.u>vLos Alar, os Bvtjtos t e'trj Kai e8oi Ar]p.r)Tepos
clkttjv. II. XIII, 321. II&>s yap av ris, a ye fir) en icrrair o , ravra
aocpbs eirj ; for how should any one be wise in those things which he did
not understand? Xkn. Mem. IV, 6, 7. Ae'oiro av avrov fxeveiv, tare
(tv ane\6 ols • Xkn. Cyr. V, 3, 13. Et dirodvr)o~Koi. p.ev ndvra, bcra
rov £rjv /ifTa\d]3oi, erreidr] 8e air 06 dvoi, /xevoi e'v tovtko ....
dp' ov TToXKfj dvdyKTj re\evrcovra irdvra reOvdvai ; Plat. Phaed. 72 C.
Qs dnoXoLTO Kai ak\os, o ris roiavrd ye pe£oi, may any other man
likeivise perish, who shall do such things. Od. I, 47. TedvatTjv, ore p.ot
(inxen ravra p.e\oi, may I die, when I (shall) no longer care for
these! MlMN. Fr. I, 2. (Here orav fxrjKeri p.eXj] might be used with-
out change of meaning. But ore /xeXet, found in the passage as
quoted by Plutarch, would refer to the present in classic Greek.)

(b.) On the other hand, the dependent verb is sometimes in
the Subjunctive (or Future Indicative with ei), on the ground
that it follows a tense of future time. This happens especially
after the Optative with av used in its sense approaching that of
the Future Indicative (§ 52, 2, N ; § 54, 1, b.) E. g.

*Hv ovv p-ddrjs p.oi tovtov, ovk av drrodoinv, if then you should
(shall) learn this for me, I would not pay, &c. Arist. Nub. 116. "Hv
ere d<pe\a> fiai, KaKiar airo\o'ip.nv. Id. Ran. 586. Eyu> 8e ravrrjv
fiev rr)v elprjvrjv, ecos av eh 'Adrjvaiav ~Ke innra i , ov8e7ror av crvp.-
QnvKevaaipt iroLrjcraadai rfj noXei, I would never advise the city to make
this peace, as long as a single Athenian shall be left. Dem. F. L. 345,
14. (Here ecos Xeinoiro would be the common form.) "Slo-irep av
v/jiaiv eKao~ros alaxyvdelrj rrjv rd^iv \ine7v r/v av ra^drj e'v r<a jroXeua.
as each one of you would be ashamed to leave the post at which he might
be placed in war. Aeschin. Cor. § 7. (Here ijv rax&eir) would be
the more common expression.) Tooi/ droirordTciv av e'ir, el ravra
8vvr)6eis m npd£et Dem. 01. 1, 16, 25. Many such examples may
be explained equally well by § 54, 1 (a).

52 USE OF THE TENSES. [§ 34, 1

Note. It will be understood that no assimilation to the Optative
can take place when the protasis (after el or a relative) consists of a
present or past tense of the indicative, as in this case a change to
the Optative would involve a change of time. See § 64, Rem 2.

2 In final and object clauses after Iva, onus, pi], &c, the
Subjunctive (or Future Indicative) is generally used when the
leading verb is an Optative referring to the future ; the
Optative, however, sometimes occurs. The preference for the
Subjunctive here can be explained on the general principle
(§ 31, Note 1, and § 44, 2). E. g.

(Subj.) 'Okvoltjv av els to. n\o1a epjiaiveiv, pr) Karahvcrrj • 0o/3oi-
L.rjv 8' av ra> r/yepovt eneadai, prj rjpds dydyrj oQev ovx oiov re ecrrai
e^eXdelv. Xex. An. 1, 3, 1 7. O'iopai av vpds peya ovr/aat to arpd-
Tevpa, el empe\r)8eir]Te oncos avri twv dnoX a>\ 6t a>v as Ta^iora o~TpaTT)-
yoi Ka\ \o\ayo\ dvriKaraaradcoaiv. Xex. An. Ill, 1, 38.

(Opt.) Heipuiprjv av pfj npoaa vpcov elvai, Iva, el nov Kaipos eir),
enicpave Irjv. Xex. Cyr. II, 4, 17. 'H (pv\a<r) ye\ola rts av (pai-
voito, el pr] wye inipe\oio ona>s e£a)8ev ti elafpe po ito. Xex.
Oecon. VII, 39. Other examples of the Optative are Aesch.
Eumen. 298 (e\6oi, onas yevoiro) ; Soph. Aj. 1221 (onus n poo-el-
noipev) ; Soph. Phil. 325; Eur. Hec. 839; Xex. Cyr. I, 6, 22.

Note. In relative sentences expressing a purpose the Future
Indicative is regularly retained, even after past tenses of the Indica-
tive. For exceptional cases of the Optative in this construction,
depending on the Optative with av, see § 65, 1, Notes 1 and 3.

3. In indirect quotations and questions, depending upon an

I Optative which refers to the future, the Indicative is the only

form regularly used to represent an Indicative of the direct

. discourse. But in indirect questions the Optative is sometimes
ftound representing a dubilative Subjunctive of the direct I

(/Question (§ 88). E.g. '

OtȤ' av eis dvreinoi u>s ov o~v p(f>e pe i rfj noXei. Dem. Megal. 202,
24. E« oi'i' vvv anociei)(&e'ir) riva XP*1 vyeiaBai, .... ovk av onore o*
no^epioi eXdoiev (3ov\evea8ai Tjpds 8eoi. Xex. An. Ill, 2, 36.

Ovk av e\ois e'^eXdav o tl XP™° cavru), if you should withdraw,
ti\ you would not know ivhat to do with yourself. Plat. Crit. 45 B. Oinc
» ' ' " av eyois o tl

/

XOLs ° rl X ph °~a l0 o~avra, dAX' iXiyyiar/s av ko\ xuu~pu>o ovk e^coi/
o ti e 'in o is . Id. Gorg. 486 B. The direct questions here were ti
Xpup-at. ; — ti xpwupai ; — rl etna ; The Subjunctive can always
be retained in this construction, even after past tenses. See § 71.

Note. In Dem. Megal. 203, 12, we find a case of the Optative in
an indirect quotation : Oi) yap exeivo y av e'inoipev, as dvTaXXd^aaBat
[iovXo I pe 6' dvrmdXovs AaKtfraip,ovlovs dvri Qqjjalav There are

\

§ 35, 2.] DEPENDENCE OF MOODS AND TENSES. 53

no other readings, and it is doubtful whether we must consider it as
an exceptional case of assimilation (we could not say this, that we
wished, &c), or emend it, either by reading fiovXopetia (as proposed
by Madvig, Bemerk. p. 21), or by inserting av, which may easily have
been omitted in the Mss. before either dvTaXXd^ao-dai. or dvTtndXovs.
In Plat. Kep. VII, 515 D, we find in the best Mss. Tt av o'Ui avrdv I
flireiv, et ris avTai Xeyot oti totc pev ewpa (pXvapias, vvv be opOoTtpa!
/SXeVot, what do you think he would say, if any one should tell hiiri
that all that time he had been seeing foolish phantoms, but that now he
sees more correctly f Some Mss. read fiXenei.

In H. V, 85, Tvbdbnv ovk av yvo'ins TTOTepoto-i per e in, the Opta-
tive in the indirect question represents perco-Tiv, but ovk av yvoins
here refers to the past, meaning you would not have known. (See
§ 49, 2, N. 6.)

§ 35. 1. The Present, Perfect, and the Futures in the
Infinitive and Participle regularly denote time which is merely
relative to that of the leading verb of the sentence. They are
therefore primary when that is primary, and secondary when
that is secondary. E. g.

BovXerai Xkyew ri tovto io-nv, he wishes to tell what this is.
ESovXero Xeyeiv ri tovto e'irj , he wished to tell what this was. &no\v
aKijKoevai ri eo~riv, he says he has heard what it is. "E(pn a<rjKoevai
ri e'ln, he said he had heard what it was. &r]o-\ Troirjcreiv o ti av
fiovXno-Qc, he says he will do whatever you shall ivish. *E<pn ttoijj-
(Tfiv o ti fiovXoiaOc , he said he would do .whatever you should wish.

Mevovo-iv j3ovXopevoi. elbevai t'i ecrri. "Epevov ftovXopevoi elbevai
rt 6*1)7. Mevovaiv dicnKooTes ri eariv. "Epevov aKnKoores ri e'in.
Mevovo-Lv aKovoopevoi ri icmv. "Epevov aKovaopevoi ti ('in.

Note. When the Present Infinitive and Participle represent
the Imperfect (without av) they are secondary without regard to
the leading verb. E. g.

Ilcbs yap oteo-de bvo-xepcbt anovetv, el ris n Xeyot; how unieilU
inyly do you think they heard it, when any one said anything ? See
this and the other examples under § 15, 3, and § 73, 2.

2. "When the Aorist Infinitive in itself does not refer to any
definite time, it takes its time from the leading verb (like the
Present), and may be either primary or secondary. But when
it refers to time absolutely past, it is always a secondary tense.
E.g.

BovXerat yva>vai ri tovto eartv, he wishes to learn what this is.
EfiovXero yvcovai ir. tovto e'in, he wished to learn what this was.
(§23,1.)

But <f>T]o-\ yvavai ti tovto tin, he says that he learned whut thu

r\

_ n*» -

54 THE TARTICLE *AN. [ § 35, 2.

was (§ 23, 2). "Ecpn yvavai t'i tovto e'lrj, he sant that he had learned
what this was. (rVwwu lias the force of a primary tense in the first
example, that of a secondary tense in the others.)

3. The Aorist Participle refers to time past relatively to the
leading verb. It is therefore secondary when the leading
verb is past or present and the Participle refei's to time
absolutely past ; but it may be primary when the leading verb
is future, if the Participle refers to time absolutely future.
E. g.

"lure r)pas eXQovras Iva tovto ibotpev, you know that ice came
that we might see this. 'Yrrenrcov raWa oti ciutos tokcI Ttpd^oi,
Sx^to. ThuC. I, 90. Tfj pdaTiyi TV7VTto~6a> irXnyas wo Kr)pvicos kv
ayopq, ktj pv tjavTOS u>v eveiea peXXei TimTeo~6at. Plat. Leg. XI,
917 E. VrjCpav SeiVa? fir] her]6ein . . . TpeCpei. ARIST. Vesp. 109.

4. The tenses of the Infinitive and Participle with &» are
followed, in dependent clauses, by those constructions that
would have followed the finite moods which they represent, in
the same position. See § 41, § 32, 3, and § 34.

CHAPTER III.

THE PARTICLE "AN.

§ 36. The adverb av (Epic «e', Doric kcl) has two
uses, which must be carefully distinguished.

1. In one use, it denotes that the action of the verb
to which it is joined is dependent upon some condition,
expressed or implied. This is its force with the
secondary tenses of the Indicative, and with the
Optative, Infinitive, and Participle: with these it
forms an apodosis, and belongs strictly to the verb.

2. In its other use, it is joined regularly to «, if, and
lo all relatives and temporal particles, (and occasionally
to the final particles &>9, oV&x; and o<ppa,~) when these

§ 37, 2.] THE PARTICLE "AN. 55

words are followed by the Subjunctive. Here it seems
to belong entirely to the relative or particle, with which
it often coalesces, as in eav, orav, kireihav.

Remark 1. The rules, § 36, 1, 2, include only the constructions
which are in good use in Attic Greek. For the Epic use of av with
the Subjunctive in apodosis, see § 38, 2 ; for av with the Future In-
dicative, see § 37, 2.

Remark 2. There is no word or expression in English which can
be used to translate av. In its first use (§ 36, 1) we express it by
the mood of the verb which we use ; as /SovXotro av, he would wish.
In its second use, with the Subjunctive, it has no force that can be
made perceptible in English. Its peculiar use can be understood
only by a study of the various constructions in which it occurs.
These are enumerated below, with references (when it is necessary)
to the more full explanation of each in Chapter IV.

§ 37. 1. The Present and Perfect Indicative are

never used with av.

When this seems to occur, there is always a mixture of construc-
tions. Thus in Plat. Leg. IV, 712 E, «ya) be ovtco vvv e£ai(pvr]s av
epwnjdeis ovToas. onep elnov, ovk e'x03 flireiv, av was used with a view
\o ovk av e'lnoipi or some such construction, for which ovk e^co elneiv
was substituted : the meaning is. if I should suddenly be asked, I
could not say, &c. So in Plat. Men. 72 C, k*iv el noXXal . . . elaiv,
ev ye ti eidos ravrov naaai exovai, i. e. even if they are many, Still
(it would seem to follow that) they all have, &c. Examples like the
last are very common in Aristotle, who seems to use Kav el almost
like Kal el, without regard to the mood of the leading verb.

Remark. Constructions like those mentioned in § 42, 2, Notp,
must not be referred to this head. For ovk av uoi boKe'i eivai is
never it would not seem to me to be ; but always, it does not seem to
me that it would be; av belonging to elvai.

2. The Future Indicative is often used with av or

/

K€ by the early poets, especially Homer. The addition
of av makes the Future more contingent than that
tense naturally is, giving it a force approaching that of
the Optative with av in apodosis (§ 39). E. g.

AXX iff, eyu> he Ke rot Xapircov plav 6n\orepda>v Soxrw, oirviepevai
Ka\ o~r)v KeKkrjo'dai cikoitiv. II. XIV, 267. Kai Ke ris a>8' epeei
Tpdxov vne prjvopeovrcov. perhaps some one will thus speak. II. IV, 176.
O 8e Kev Kf^o\o)o,fTa(,w Kev "iKcouai, and he will perhaps be angry
to whom I come. II. I, 139. Ei 8' aye, tovs av eyiov emo^/opai ' oi
&e m8eo~6(i>v. D IX, 167. Hap epoiye Ka\ aXXoi, ol <e ixe riprj-

56 THE PARTICLE *AN. [§ 37, 2.

o- overt, i. e. icho will honor me when occasion offers. H. I, 174. E.
8' 'Obvaevs eXBoi Kal ikoit es narpida yaiav, afyd k e avv co ivai8\ /3ta$
aTroTiufrai dv8pa>v. Od. XVII, 539. (In this passage the Future
with Ke is used nearly in the sense of the Optative, corresponding to
the Optatives in the Protasis. 'An-ono-erai may also be Aorist Sub-
junctive, by § 38, 2.) MaBuiv 8e m av ipe'i. Pind. Nein. VII, 68.
Kav er eVi (poviov o^op-ai aljia. EuR. Elect. 484. (So the

Mss.)

Note 1. The use of av with the Future Indicative in Attic Greek
is absolutely denied by many critics, and the number of the ex-
amples cited in support of it have been greatly diminished by the
more careful revision of the texts of the Attic writers. Still several
passages remain, even in the best prose, where we must either
emend the text against the authority of the Mss., or admit the con-
struction as a rare exception to the general rule. E. g.

Aiywrtou? fie ... . ov\ opa irolq 8vvdp.ei crvppdxa XPrl(T<^lJLfl'01
fiakXov av KoXdaeade rr/s vvv crvv £p.o\ ovcrrjs- Xen. An. II, 5, 13.
'ATri(Txvpia-dp.evoL 8e cracpes av [/taroirrijffeTf] avrois dno tov 'icrov
vp.lv pdWov irpoacfrepeo-dai. Thuc. I, 140. (Here most editors read
KaTao-TTjo-aire, on the authority of inferior Mss.) *E<pn ovv top
ipa>rcop.evov eiTreiv, ov% rjicei, (pdvai, ov8 av fj £ei 8evpo, nor will he be
likely to come hither. Plat. Rep. X, 615 1). (Here the only other
reading is j^oi, which is of course corrupt.) "E(f>n .... X«y«ui»
7rp6s ti/xaj wy, e I 8ia<pev£o[pr]v, t'jdt] a v vpo>v ol vleis .... ivavrts
iravTaisacn. 8 1 a<pdapr] aovrai . Id. Apol. 2d C.

The construction is perhaps less suspicious in the dramatic chorus,
which belongs to lyric poetry. See the last example under § 37, 2.
See § 41, 4, on the Future Infinitive and Participle with av.

Note 2. The form <i is much more common with the Future in
Homer than the form av.

3. The most common use of av with the Indicative
is with the secondary tenses, generally the Imperfect
and Aorist, in apodosis. It here denotes that the condi-
tion upon which the action of the verb depends is not or
was not fulfilled. See § 49, 2.

Note. The Imperfect and Aorist are sometimes used with
Sp in an iterative sense ; which construction must not be con-
founded with that just mentioned. See § 30, 2.

§ 38. 1. In Attic Greek the Subjunctive is used
with av only in the cases mentioned in § 36, 2 ; never
in independent sentences. See § 47, 2, § 50 1 § 51,

§ 41,] THE PARTICLE AN. 57

and § 60, 3. For the occasional use of av in final
clauses, see § 44, 1, Note 2.

2. In Epic poetry, when the Subjunctive is used
nearly in the sense of the Future Indicative (§ 87),
it sometimes takes «e or av. The combination forms an
apodosis, with a protasis expressed or understood, and
is nearly or quite equivalent to the Future Indicative
with av. E. g.

Et de Ke firj 8a>a>criv, iyu> 8e nev avrbs eXw^tai, and if they do not
give her up, I will take her myself. II. I, 137. (Cf. H. I, 324.)
See § 50, 1, Note 2 (a).

Note. This Epic use of *e or av with the Subjunctive must
not be confounded with the ordinary construction of § 38, 1.
In the latter the av is closely connected with the particle or
relative, while in the former it is joined with the verb, as it is
with the Indicative or Optative. It in fact bears more resem-
blance to the ordinary Optative with av in apodosis in Attic
Greek, than to any other Attic construction.

§ 39. The Optative with av always forms an apo-
dosis, to which a protasis must be either expressed or
implied. It denotes what would happen, if the con-
dition (expressed or implied) upon which the action
of the verb depends should ever be fulfilled. See § 50,
2, and § 52, 2.

Remark. Such constructions as are explained in § 44, 1, N. 3,
a, and § 74, 1, N. 2, are no exception to this rule, as there av does
not belong to the verb.

Note. The Future Optative is not used with av. See § 26.

§ 40. The Imperative is never used with av.

Note. All passages formerly cited for av with the Imperative
are now emended on Mss. authority, or otherwise satisfactorily ex-
plained. See Passow, or Liddell and Scott, s. \."Av.

§41. The Infinitive and Participle can be used
with av in all cases in which a finite verb, if it stood in
their place, would be accompanied with av. This com
3*

58 THE PARTICLE *AN. [§ 41, 1.

bination always forms an apodosis (except in its itera-
tive sense, Note 3) : it can never form a, protasis, as the
finite verb never has av joined to itself in protasis. (See
§ 36, 2.)

Each tense of the Infinitive and Participle with av
firms the same kind of apodosis which the correspond-
ing tense of the Indicative or Optative would form in its
place. The context must decide whether the Indicative
or the Optative is represented in each case.

1. The Present Infinitive and Participle (which represent
also the Imperfect, by § 15, 3, and § 16, 2), when they are
used with av, may be equivalent either to the Imperfect Indica-
tive with &v or to the Present Optative with av. They can
represent no other form, as no other form of the Present is
used with av in apodosis in the finite moods. E. g.

&t)(t\v avTovs eXevdepovs av eii/at, el tovto ewpa^av, he says that
they would (now) be free, if they had done this (thai av representing
rjcrav av, § 37, 3). Grjalv avTovs eXevdepovs av elvat, el tovto
Ttpd^eiav, he says that they would (hereafter) be free, if (hey should do
this (elvat av representing e'lrjaav av, § 39). 0'lea6e yap tov -naripa
ovk av cpvXaTTtiv Kal ttjv Tifirjv Xap-fidve iv tu>v ^vXa>v ; do you
think he would not have taken care and have received the pay ?
Dem. Timoth. 1194, 20. (Here the direct discourse would be
eCpvXarrev av Kal eXapftavev.) Oipat yap av ovk a^apt'orcoy poi
e^eiv , for I think it would not be a thankless labor; i. e. ovk av e\oi.
Xex. An. II, 3, 18. MapTvp'ico e'xpa>vTo, pr) av £v o~t paT eve iv , el
pr) ti tjo'ikovv ols eTTj]eo-av, that they would 7iot join in expeditions, wiless
those against whom they were marching had wronged them. Tnuc
III, 11. (Here t-vcrTpaTeveiv av represents ^weo-TpuTevov av.)

Oida avTovs eXevdepovs av ovras , el tovto enpa^av, I know they
would (now) be free, if they had done this. Oifta uvtovs eXevdepovs
av ovtos, el tovto npd^eiav, I know they would (hereafter) be free,
if they should do this. (In the former ovTas av represents r/aav av,
in the latter elrjaav av.) Ta>v Xapfiavovrcov diKTjv ovres av 8iKaio>s
(l. e. rjpev av), whereas we should justly be among those who inflict
punishment. Dem. fiubul. 1300, 8. "Onep eo^e M • • • • ttjv IleXc/-
novvrjaov TropBelv, d&vvaT(ov av ovtcov (vp<ov) enij3or)9eiv, when yot
would have been unable, to bring aid (sc. if he had done it). Tnuc. I
73. IIoXX av e^o>!/ eTep' elnelv nepl avTrjs TtapaXe'nra, although
might be able (if I should wish) to say many other things about it, .
omit them. Dem. Cor. 313, 4 'Arro navTos av cpepav Xoyov 8ikoioi
ur)xuvnp.a ttoikIXov (i. e 6s \v (beouis), thou who wuuldst derive, &c
Soi'H. O. C. 761.

§ 41, 3.] THE PARTICLE *AN. 59

2. The Perfect Infinitive and Participle (which represent
also the Pluperfect, by § 18, 3, Rem.), when they an; used
with av, may be equivalent either to the Pluperfect Indicative
with av or to the Perfect Optative with av. E. g.

Ei firj ras operas vnep avrcov eKelvas ol Mapadavc Ka\ 'S.aXaplvi na-
oea^ovro, .... navra raid' vtto ra>v fiapfiapatv av eaXwKevai
(sc. cprjcreiev avns), if those at Marathon and Salamis had not ex-
hibited those deeds of valor in their behalf, any one ivould say that all
these would have been captured by the barbarians. Dem. F. L. 441,
21. Here eaXvKevai av represents eaXoxeo-av av, Plup. Ind.) 'aXX'
ovk av rjyovpai avrovs 8lktjv d£iav 8e8a>Kevai, el aKpoao-dpevoi.
avrav Kara^rrjCpiaaiode , but I do not believe they would (then') have
suffered sufficient punishment, if you after hearing them should con-
demn them. Lys. XXVII, § 9. (Here the protasis in the Optative
shows that 8e8mKevai av represents 8(8o}Kores av (lev (§ 18, 1); but
if the protasis had been el Karey\n)(piaaa8e, if you had condemned them,
8f8coKevai av would have represented e8e8<J)Keo-av av, they would have
suffered.) See also, in § 8 of the same oration, ovk av dnoXa>Xevai
.... aXXa 8e8a)Kevai. Av8pa7ro8(i)8eis av 8iKaia>s Ke kXt) cr 6 at
TjyeiTQ. Xen. Mem. I, 1, 16. (Here KuiXija-dai av represents /cefcXij-
pevm av eiev.)

These constructions are of course rare, as the forms of the finite
moods here represented themselves seldom occur.

3. The Aorist Infinitive and Participle with av may be
equivalent either to the Aorist Indicative with av or to the
Aorist Optative with av. E. g.

Ovk av fjyelad' avrbv kclv en 18 papelv; do you not believe that (if
(his had been so) he would even have run thither f i. e. ovk av eire-
8papev ; Dem. Aph. I, 831, 10. "Avev 8e aeiapov ovk av p.oi 8oKtl-rb
roiovro £v pfiijvai yeveo-dat (ovk civ £vpl3r)vai representing ovk av
£wt(3n), but unless there had been an earthquake, it does not seem to
me that such a thing could have by any chance happened. Thuc. Ill,
89. Toiis Adrjvalovs ffXin^ev 'iacos av en e £ eX 6e i v (ecu ttjv yrjv ovk
av 7repii8elv rpnOrjvai. (i. e. I'trcoj av e'ne^iXdoiev Kal ovk av nepu-
8oiev). Id. II, 20. Ov8' av Kparij crat avrovs rrjs yfjs r]yovp.ai (i. e-
Kparfjcreiav av). Id. VI, 37.

AXXa pa8i<os av d(pe 6 e) s, el Kai perplccs ri rovrcnv enolnae, npoei-
Xero dnoBavelv, whereas he might easily have been acquitted, &c. Xen.
Mem. IV, 4, 4. Kal el dnrjxdnvde axmep fjuels, ev icrpev prj av
ncaov vp.ds Xhirrjpovs yevopevovs ro'is £vppd\ois, Ka\ dvay Ka-
cr 6 ivr as av f; cip^eiv, k-t.X. (i. e. ovk av eyiveaBe, Kai TjvayKaO'd^re
av), if you had become odious as we have, we are sure that you would
have been no less oppressive to your allies, and that you would have
veen forced, &c. Thuc. I, 76. 'Op<bv to napareixtcrpa dirXovv ov, Kal
i eniKparno'ece tls .... padiais av aire Xn(p8ev (i. e. pqdiuis at
lino \ij(pdeir)), seeing that it would easily be taken, &c. Id. VII, 42

60 THE PARTICLE *AN. [§ 41, 3

Ovre ovra ovre av yevo/xeva Xoyo-rvoiovo-iv, they relate things which
are not real, and which never could happen (i. e. ovk av yivoirai). Id.
VI, 38.

4. The Future Infinitive and Participle with av would bo
equivalent to the Homeric construction of av with the Future
Indicative (§ 37, 2). As, however, av is not found in Homer
with either the Future Infinitive or the Future Participle
(see below, Note 2), this construction rests chiefly on the
authority of passages in Attic writers, and is subject to the
same doubt and suspicion as that of the Future Indicative
with av in those writers. (See § 37, 2, Note 1.) In the
following passages it is still retained in the best editions, with
strong support from Mss.

Nou/foi^Tes, el ravrnv irparnv Xdfioiev, pqbias a v acpiai raXXa
7rpoa-x^pr]o-(iv. Thvc II, 80. (Here the direct discourse
would regularly have beet either in the Fut. Ind. without av, or in
the Aor. Opt. with av.) The same may be said of Thuc. V, 82,
vopifav p-tyiarov av a(pas w(peXr)creiv. (Here one Ms. reads by
correction co^Xf/crai.) See also Thuc. VI, 66; VIII, 25 and 71.
2xo\fj nod' ijijeiv 8eip' av e^rji/xovv eyco, / declared that I should be
very slow to come lather again. Soph. Ant. 390. 'A^/ere tj p.rj d<pUre,
co j ep.ov ovk av ttoii)o-ovtos aXXa, olfi el peXXa ttoXXokis reOvavai.
Plat. Apol. 30 C. Toiis otiovv av eKeivco Troirjo-ovras dvjjpnKOTes e<
rrjs noXeas eaeo-de. Dem. F. L. 450*, 27. (Here Cod. A. reads
7T0ir]0~avTas-)

Note 1. As the Future Optative is never used with av (§ 39,
Note), this can never be represented by the Future Infinitive or
Participle with av.

Note 2. The Participle with L or ice is not found in Homer or
Pindar. The Infinitive with av occurs in these poets very seldom,
and only in indirect discourse. E. g.

Kat 8" av to'is aXXoiaiv f(pr] Trapafiv6f]craa6ai. II. IX, 684.
(The direct discourse is given in the words of Achilles in vs. 417,
(cat b' av . . . . ■napap.vdrjo-aiprjv.)

Note 3. The Infinitive with av sometimes represents an iterative
Imperfect or Aorist Indicative with av (§ 30, 2). This must bo
carefully distinguished from an apodosis. E. g.

'\kovco AaKfSaipoviovs Tore ep,j3aX6vTas av Ka\ KaKtoo-avras rnv x">pa*
avax<»pe~iv «V o'Lkov irdXiv, 1 hear that the Lacedaemonians at thai
time, after invading and ravaging the country, used to return home
again. Dem. Phil. Ill, 123, 16. (Here dvaXG>pe~iv av represents
dvtx^pow av in its iterative sense, they used to return )

& 42, 2.] THE PARTICLE *AN. 61

Note 4 The Infinitive with av commonly stands in indirect
discourse after a verb of saying or thinking, as in most of the ex-
amples given above. Occasionally, however, it is found in other
constructions, where the simple Present or Aorist Infinitive is regu-
larly used. E. g.

Td Se evTos ovtcos eKaiero, t»<rrt ijbiCTTa a v e's v8a>p y^v^pov o~(pds
avrovs plnTetv, so that the;/ ivould most gladly have thrown themselves
into cold water. Tu'Tc. II, 49. ("Got? pinreiv would be the ordi-
nary expression here : with av it represents an Imperfect Indicative,
eppinTov av.) Eneivovs dntaTeprjKevaL, el teal Kparoiev, prj av en cn^ay
airoTet\i<rai, to have deprived them of the power of ever again walling
them in, even if they should be victorious. Id. VII, 6. See § 27, N. 2
(a), for an example of ftovXopai and the Infinitive with av. We
have given examples of verbs of hoping, &c. with the Present,
Aorist, and Future Infinitive; they sometimes take the Infinitive
with av, as a slight change from the Future; as in Thuc. VII, Gl :
to rrjs tvxtjs kolv pe6' rjpcov eXiricravTes o-rrjvai. (See § 27, N. 3.)
E\Tri(co is found also with cos and the Future Optative in Thuc.
VI, 30; and with cos and the Aorist Optative with av in V, 9.

Note 5. The Participle with av can never represent a protasis,
because there is no form of protasis in the finite moods in which av
is joined with the verb itself. For examples of apparent violations
of this principle, incorrectly explained by Matthiae and others as
cases of the Participle with av in protasis, see § 42, 3, Note 1.

§ 42. 1. When av is used with the Subjunctive, if it does
not coalesce with the relative or particle into one word (as in
idv, orav), it is separated from it only by such words as fiiv, 8e,
re, yap, &c. See examples under § 62.

2. When av stands in apodosis with any verbal form, it may
be either placed near the verb, or attached to some more em-
phatic word in the sentence.

Particularly, it is very often placed directly after inter-
rogates, negatives, adverbs of time, place, &c, and other
words which especially affect the sense of the sentence. E. g.

AAAa tis 8q decov 6e panda ei'77 av 17 6o-iqtt]s ; Plat. Euthyph. 13
D. 'AAA' opcos to Ke<pd\aiov avTtov pqbicos av (ittols. Id. 14 A. Oi>«c
av dr) roVS' avhpa pa^ns (pvcraio pereXBcov, Tvdeidrjv, bs vvv ye av Ka\ Jul
narp\ pd^oiTO. II. V, 456. Ilcos av tov alpvXcoTarov, e^Bpov aXrjpa,
tovs re dio~o-dp%as okecrcras /SacrtA^j, re'Aos Bdvoipi kovtos. Soph. Aj.
389. Tavtcrr' av re ttoX.iv 01 tolovtoi eTtpovs neitravTes dnoXicTiiav.

Thuc. II, 63.

Note. For the sake of emphasis, av is often separated
from its verb by such words as ohpai, boKta, (pnpi, olda, &c. In

62 THE PARTICLE *AN. [§ 42, 2

such cases care must be taken to connect the av with the verb
to which it really belongs. E. g.

Kal vvv i)8ea>s av poi donco Koivavrj aai, and now I think 1
should gladly take part {av belonging to Koivcovrjcrai). Xex. Cyr.
VIII, 7, 25. OuS' av vpels olo' Sri in av cr aa 8 e iroXepovvTes, nor
would you (I am sure) have ceased fighting. Dem. Phil. II, 72,
25. Ti ovv av, e<pr]v, etn 6 "Epa>s ; Plat. Symp. 202 D. This h
especially irregular in the expression ova olda a. v el, or ovk a. v ol8a
el, followed by an Optative to which the av belongs ; as ovk olS" a v
el ire io-aipi, I do not know whether I could persuade him (sc. if I
should try). Eur. Med. 941. The more regular form would be
ov< ol8a el neicraipi av. See Elmsley ad loc. (vs. 911).

3. *Av is sometimes used twice, or even three times, with
the same verb. This may be done in a long sentence, to make
the conditional force felt through the whole, especially when
the connection is broken by intermediate clauses. It may also
be done in order to emphasize particular words with which it
is joined, and to make them prominent as being affected by the
contingency. E. g.

"Got av, el crde'vos Xaftoipi, 8 nX w crai /x' av ol' avrols (ppovco.
SOPH. El. 333. Ovk av ijyelad' avrov kuv eir i 8pape i v . Dem.
Aph. I, 831, 10. Ovr av eXovres avBis avdaXolev av. AeSCH.
Ag. 340. "AXXovs y av ovv olupeda to. fjptrepa \af56vras 8et£ai av
paXicrra ei tl p-erptdfapev. TiiUC. I, 76. (See §42, 2, N.) Ovr
av KeXevo-aip\ ovr av, el deXois en npaaaetv, epov y av r)8ecos Spans
pera. SOPH. Ant. 69. Aeya> Kad' eKacrrov 8oKelv av poi tov avrov
av8pa trap' rjpaiv eni nXe'tar av e'lSn Ka\ pera yapi'Taw paXiar av
evrpaneXcos to acopa avrapKes nape %eo~dai. Phuc. II, 41. (Here
av is used three times, belonging to 7rapexfc6ai.) 'Yp.5>v he e'pnpos
a>v ovk av Uavbs olpai elvai ovr av (plXov u>(peXr]0-ai ovr av e\dpau
dXe£ao-dat. Xen. An. I, 3, 6. (Here av is used three times, be-
longing to elvai.)

Note 1. This principle, taken in connection with that
stated in § 42, 2, by showing that av can be joined to any
word in the sentence which it is important to emphasize, as
well as to its own verb, and even to both, explains many
cases in which av and a Participle appear to form a protasis
(See § 41, Note 5.) If a Participle takes the place of a
protasis, it is of course one of the most important words in
the sentence, and one to which the particle av is especially
akely to be attached. The av, however, does not qualify
6uch a Participle, any more than it does a negative or in-

§ 42, 4.] THE PARTICLE *AN. 63

terrogative with which it is connected for the same purpose ;
but it always belongs to the principal verb of the apodosis.
E.g.

No^u'crare to re (fiavXov ko\ to pecrov Ka\ to iravv aKpifits av £vy-
Kpidev fiakio-T av lo-^ve tv, believe that these, if they should be
unved, would be especially strong. Tnuc. VI, 18. (Here £vyKpa8ev
alone {not with av) is equivalent to ft ^vyKpaOeiq (§ 52, 1), and the
av is placed before it merely to emphasize it, as containing the pro-
tasis to the verb laxyet-v, to which this av, as well as the other,
belongs.) ' Aywvas av tis pot doKel, ecprj, u> irdrep, tv poe m a>v
iicdo~Tois Ka\ atiXa rrporiBels pdXiaT av noieiv ev aa<eiadai, it
seems to me, said he, father, that if any one should proclaim contests,
&c, he would cause, &c. Xen. Cyr. I, 0, 18. (Here the protasis
implied in the Participles is merely emphasized by av, which be-
longs to noielv.) AeyovTos uv tlvos ir tcrreucrat o'leaBe ; (i. e. et
rls eXeyev, eniaTevaav civ ;) do you think they would have believed
it, if any one had told them? Dem. Phil. II, 71, 4. (Here too the
av stands near Xeyovros only to point it out as the protasis, to which
its own verb rrioreCo-at is the apodosis.)

In these cases, the protasis expressed by the Participle is affected
by the av, only as the ordinary protasis with el is affected in the
example from Soph. El. 333, quoted above, under § 42, 3.

Note 2. "Av is sometimes used elliptically without a verb,
when one can be supplied from the context. E. g.

Oi oLKtTat. ptyKovcriV dW ovk av rrpo tov (sc. eppeynov), the slaves
are snoring ; but they wouldn't have done so once. Arist. Nub. 5.
'£2r ovt av daTcov toji/S' av e£e'nroip.L tco, ovt av TeKvoiai to'is epols,
o-Tepycov opus. Soph. O. C. 1528. So ncos yap av (sc. e'lr)) ; how
could it? 7tws ova av; and similar phrases; especially cocmep av el
(also written as one word, mane pave i), in which the av belongs to
the verb that is understood after el; as cpofiovpevos aanep av el
rrals, fearing like a child (i. e. <pofioipevos aio-irep av ecpofirjdr] el irals
%v). Plat. Gorg. 479 A. (See § 53, N. 3.)

In like manner av may be used with el in protasis, or with a con-
ditional relative, the verb being understood ; as in Xen. An. I, 3,
6: ws epoi ovv Iovtos ony av /cat vpeis, ovtu> ttjv yvvurjv e%ere.
(That is, 07177 av Kai vpeis iqre.)

Note 3. Repetition of Ke is rare; yet it sometimes occurs E. g.

Tea k e pdX' fj Ke v epeive Kai eacrvpevos irep 68010,
*H Ke pe Tedvnviav evi peydpoiatv eXenrev- Od. IV, 733.
On the other hand, Homer sometimes joins av and «' in th.i same
sentence for emphasis. E. g.

KapTepal, as ovt civ Kev "Apr]s oVocraiTO peTeX6a>v,
OvTe k 'Adrjvair] Xaoo-aoos- H. XHI, 127.

4. When an anodosis consists of several co-ordinate clauses

64 THE PARTICLE *AN. [§ 42, 4.

wilh the same mood, av is generally used only in the first, and
understood in the others ; unless it is repeated for emphasis, or
for some other special reason. E. g.

Oi'S' av ep.e, tjviko 8evpo aTTOTrkelv eftovKopnv, icare KwXvev , ov8e
roiavra Xeyeii' tovtco tt p o ere rarr ev , e'£ &>v rjiciod vpe'ts e'peWer
etjievai. Dem. F. L. 357, 3. (Here av is understood with wpoo-e-
rarrev.) Outco 8e 8pa>v ov8ev av 8id(f>opov rov erepov rrotol, dXX
errl raiirbv d/x^oYfpot loiev. P.LAT. Rep. II, 360 C. Ovkovv Kav, el
Trpos avro to <pa>s avayKa^ot. avrbv (SXeTreiv, dXyelv re av ra oppara
Kal (frevyeiv anoo-Tpefyopevov (o'iei) ; Id. VII, 515 E. (This ex-
ample illustrates also the principle of § 42, 3, Kav belonging to the
Infinitives.) See also Xek. An. II, 5, 14. ndvra fjpei 6 iiXurrros,
ttoWci Xeyovros epov koi Bpvkovvros ae\, to pev npoorov as av els Koivbv
yvd>pnv dwo(paivopevav, p.era ravra 8 a>s ayvoovvras 8i8do~Kovros, reXev-
ravros 8e (os av Trpos jrenpaKoras ai/rovs Kai dvoaiardrovs dvOpanovs
ovdev vnoo-reXXopevov. Dem. F. L. 390, 5. (The first av belongs to
dwe(paiv6pr)v implied, as I should have declared it, if I had been speaking
lo inform my colleagues ; in the following clause the same tense (e'8i8a-
tfKov) is implied, and av is not repeated ; in the third clause, on
the contrary, an Optative is implied, as av Xeyoip,/., and therefore
the av again appears.) In Plat. Rep. Ill, 898 A, we find av used
with two co-ordinate Optatives, understood with a third, and
repeated again with a fourth to avoid confusion with a dependent
Optative. "Av may be understood with an Optative even in a
separate sentence, if the construction is continued from a sentence
in which av is used with the Optative; as in Plat. Rep. I, 352
E: — "Ecrd' orco av aKXa l8ois rj 6<p6aXpo1s; Ov 8rjra. Ti Se,"
aKovaats aXXa ij aolv ; So with Trpdrroi, Id. IV, 439 B.

Note. The Adverb rdxa, in the sense of perhaps, is often
joined with av, in which case the phrase rdx av is nearly
equivalent to 'Lo-as. This, however, cannot be used unless the
av would form an apodosis with the verb of the sentence, if the
rdxa were not joined with it. Thus rdx av yevono means it
might perhaps happen. So rdx av eyevero means it would per-
haps have happened ; but it can never (like lo-as eyevero) mean
verhaps it happened.

f 43.] FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. 65

CHAPTER IV.

USE OF THE MOODS.

This chapter includes all those constructions -which
require any other form of the finite verb than the
simple Indicative expressing an absolute assertion (§ 2).
The Infinitive and Participle are included here only so
far as they are used in indirect discourse, or in Protasis
and Apodosis.

These constructions are divided into the following
classes : —

I. Final and Object Clauses after tva, &>?, ottoo?,

o<ppa, and ftf}.
II. Conditional Sentences.

III. Relative and Temporal sentences.

IV. Indirect Discourse, including Indirect Quota-

tions and Questions.

V. Causal Sentences.

VI. Expressions of a Wish.

VII. Imperative and Subjunctive in Commands,

Exhortations, and Prohibitions.
VIII. Subjunctive (like the Future Indicative) in
Independent Sentences. — Interrogative Sub-
junctive. — Ov fjbTj with the Subjunctive or
Future Indicative.

SECTION I.

Final and Object Clauses after "iva, 'Qy, w07rwff, *O0pa.

AND MlJ.

§ 43. The clauses which depend upon the so-
called final particles, iva, d)9, oVo)?, o&oa, that, in

E

66 FTNAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 43.

order that, and fin, lest, that not, may be divided into

three classes : —

A. Pure final clauses, in which the end, purpose,
or motive of the action of any verb may be expressed,
after any one of the final particles ; as ep^erat iva
tovto i8rj, he is coming that he may see this; arrspye-
rat fin tovto thy, he is departing that he may not see
this.

B. Object clauses with 07ra>? or ottw; /in after verbs
of striving, &c. ; as o-Ko-net, oirca yevnaeTai, see that it
happens; o-Koirei, 07ra>9 firj jevvaeTai, see that it does
not happen. These clauses express the direct object of
the verb of striving, &c, so that they may stand in
apposition to an object accusative like tovto ; as <tkott€i
tovto 07r&>? fit] ae o-^reTat, see to this, viz., that he does
not see you. They also imply the end or purpose of the
action of the leading verb, and to this extent they par-
take of the nature of final clauses.

C. Object clauses -with fin after verbs of fearing,
&c. ; as <})ofiovfiai fin yevwTai, I fear lest it may happen;
cf)o/3ovfiat fin tovto eyeveTo, I fear lest this happened.
These express simply the object of fear, without even
implying any purpose to prevent that object from being
realized. Thus if we say (pofSovfiai tovto, fin /caKco?
irpa^w, I fear this, lest I may fall into misfortune, the
clause with fin merely explains tovto, the direct object
of <f)of3ovfiat.

Remark. Although the object clauses of the class B par-
lake slightly of the nature of final clauses, so that they some-
times allow the same construction (the Subjunctive for the
Future Indicative, § 45), still the distinction between these
two classes is very strongly marked. An object clause, as we
have seen, can stand in apposition to a preceding tovto;
whereas a final clause could stand in apposition to tovtov

I

§ 44, 1.] PURE FINAL CLAUSES. 67

eveKa, as (px^rai tovtov ei/e/<a, Iva tjfitv I3ar]dfjar], he COineS for this
purpose, viz., that lie may assist us. The two can be combined
in one sentence; as o~Trov8d£fi ottcos tt\ovttj a ft, Iva rovs (piXovs
tv TToij), he is eager to be rich, that he may benefit his friends.

Care must be taken not to mistake the nature of an object
clause, when its subject is attracted by the leading verb ; as

<TK»1Tfiv TrjV TToXlV OTTCOS aoodrjCTCTCll for (TKOTTtiv OTTCOS T] TToXlS CTCodrf-

atTai, to see that the city is saved.

Note 1. "Oqbpa is found only in Epic and Lyric po-
etry.

Note 2. The regular negative adverb after tva, £>s, onus,
and o<ppa is prj ; but after fiy, lest, ov is used. E. g.

'ATTtpx^rai, tva prj tovto IBtj, he is departing that he may not see ij.
this. 4>o/3fTrat pr) ov tovto yivrjTai, he is afraid lest this may not fl
happen. This use of ov as the negative after pi) seems to have no '
other object than to avoid repetition of ^117. Where, however, the
sentence is so long that this repetition would not be noticed, we find
pr) repeated ; as in Xen. Mem. I, 2, 7 : i6avpa£e 8' et tis . . . . <po-
fioiro pf) 6 yevopevos koXos Kayadbs tco ra piyicrra evepyerrjcravTi
p r) ttjv peyiarrjv \dptu ef-oi.

A. Pure Final Clauses.

§ 44. 1. In pure final clauses the Subjunctive is
regularly used, if the leading verb is primary ; and the
Optative, if the leading verb is secondary. E. g.'.

Nuv 8 epxead' iir\ Selnvov, tva £vvdycopev "Aprja. II. II, 381. 2oi
8" code pvrjo~TTJpes vnoKpivovrai, tv el8?is avros ceo 6vpco, el8cocri 8e
irdvTes 'A\aioi. Od. II, 111. Etna rt 8r)Ta Ki'iXX', tv opyl(j] nXeov ;
SOPH. O. R. 364. Ktu yap @ao~iXevs alpelrai, ovx Iva eavrov kgiXgii
« it ipeXrjrai , dXX iva Ka\ ol eXopevoi 8i ai/Tov ev tt pdrrcoa i.
Xen. Mem. Ill, 2, 3. Ao/cei poi KaTaKavcrai tcis dpd^as, tva pj) Ta
{(vyrj r)pcov (TrpaTnyrj ■ Xen. An. Ill, 2,27. "Q,pw6\ tv ddavdroio-t
(pocos (pepoi r)8e ftpoTo~io~iv. Od. V, 2. <£tXos e'fiavXero elvtu toIs
peyio~ra 8vvapevois, Iva d8iKcov pfj 8i8oirj Blktjv. Xen. An. II, 6,
21.

BovXrjv 8 'Apyelois imodnvopeB', ij rts ovrjcrei, cos pf] irdvres oXcov
rat u8vcro-apevoio Teolo. II. VIII, 30. Aiavoeirat. ttjv yiepvpav XCcrai,
cos pfj b~ial3r)Te,dXX,fvpecrcpd7roX-n(pflfiTe. Xen. An. II, 4, 17.
TLecpve 8' 'E.vpvrov, cos Avycav Xdrpiov picr&ov tt pdcro-oiro . PlND.
01. XI (X), 34. Tovtov evena (piXcov coero 8eia0ai, cos trvvepyovt

e^oi. Xen. An. 1, 9, 21.

68 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 44, 1

i
Tof 8e pvr)o-rr)pes Xox^civ, cotco? a7r6 (pvXov oXr/rai e£ 'WaKTjs.
Od. XIV, 181. Me des rod' ayyos vvv, ottcos to ndv p. a dr] s. SoPH.
EL 1205. Els Kaipbv rJKeis, 6iru>s rr)s 8ikt)s aKovo-gs. Xen. C)T
LTI, 1, 8. UapaKaXels larpovs, 07700? pr) diroOdvr] . Xen. Mem. II,
10, 2. Oip.ai Se ravra yiyveaOai, oi>x ottojs tovs avrovs ^opovj Kpi-
vaxxiv ot 7roAIrai, oiS' o7rcoy roi/s avrovs avXrjrds ena 1 va> cri v , ov6
ottoos tovs avrovs TvoirjTas aipavrai , 0O8' iva Tins avrdls r/ocovrai,
dXX' Iva ro'is vdpois tt e id o>vt ai . Xen. Mem. IV, 4, 16. 'Ev xe{pf0~
criv edrjKev, ottcos en nr/pa (piyoipi. Od. XIV, 312. 'Enpeo-fievovra
eyxXrjpara -rvoiovpevoi, oVcos a-cplaiv on peyiarri Trp6(paais e'irj tov
■noXepelv. THUC. I, 126.

Ke(paXjj Karavevaopai, ofppa w etr oidrj s • H- I, 524. "Opcreo 8r)
vvv, £e~ive, TroXivd' 'ipev o(ppa ere n e p. ^r (o . Od. VI, 255. Adp.oi>
&epo-e<povas eX6e, otpp Iboirr vlov etnrjs. PlND. 01. XI\ , 30.
AvTap epot ye pas avrix eroipdo-ar , d'r^pa C117 olos 'Apyeicov aytpaaros
«co. H. I, 118. °{2? 6 p.ei' evda /carecr^fr' eTreiyopevos Trep 66010, 6'cpp'
erapov ddrrrot Kai fVi Krepea Kre p io~ e lev ■ Od. Ill, 284.

'AXXa av p.€i/ i/Oi' durcy dnoo-rixe-, M Tl vorjerrj "Hprj ' epo\ 8e Ke ravra
p,eXijO-erai, o(ppa reXeo-o-co . II. I, 522. Ov 8r)r' avrbv d^tis Sevpo, pr)
ns dvapndo-rj ; SOPH. Aj. 986. Avo-ireXel. edaat eV rco ixapovri, pr)
Kal tovtov noXepiov 7T poaddipe da. Xen. C)T. II, 4, 12. Aeyerut
nfl-fir ori aTTuVnt fiovXoiTO, p.r) 6 iTaTTjp rt a^c9otTO zeal Jj 7r6Xir p-ep--
(poiro. Xen. Cyr. I, 4, 25.

Note 1. The Future Indicative sometimes (though rarely)
takes the place of the Subjunctive in pure final clauses, after
O7rcos and 6'cppa (onus pj, 6'cppa p.rj) \ — never after Iva or coy, and
very seldom after the simple p.^. (Mj; with the Future is
commonly found only after verbs of the next two classes ;
§§ 45, 46.) Here, as well as after verbs of striving and of
fearing, the Future differs from the Subjunctive only by being
a more vivid form of statement. E. g.

Kiel be pakaKo'iai Ka\ aipvkiouTi Xo'yoicri #eAyei, ottcds 'Wdicrjs €7rtXry
aerat. Od. I, 56. OOSe St' ev a\Xo rpefpovrai rj cm-cos paxovvrai
v-nep ru>v rpecpovrav. Xen. Cyi*. II, 1, 21. Xpr/ dval3ifid£eiv em top
rpo)(bv roils dvaypacpevraSi O7rcos pr) npdrepov vvi; ecrrai irp\v 7rv6ea6ai
tovs avbpas anavras. AxDOC. de Myster. I, p. 6, 38. § 43. 'En-'
avrovs rovs npoXoyovs crov rpe\f/opai, oncos to npwrov rr)S rpaycohias
pepos Trpd>Tio~Tov j3 a a a vi S>. Akist. Ran. 1120. In Nub. 1466, ottcoj
ci7j-oXeis- p.erek6(nv (not per epov eXt9') is to be explained by § 45, N.
7. Qdparvvov 8e ol r/rop evi (ppealv, ofppa Kai "EicTcop eiaerat. II .
XVI, 242. So Od. IV, 163. "Q.o~t eiKos rjpds pf] ftpabvveiv eari. pr)
Kai ns 6\frtrai v^/xcoz/ tcrcoy Kareinrj. AniST. EccleS. 4 95. So pr)
K6xoXcoo-£Tat, II. XX, 301. This construction is very rare in Attic
prose.

Note 2. The Particle av (<ce) is sometimes joined with

§ 44, 1.] PORE FINAL CLAUSES. 6£

its, anas, and o<ppa, before the Subjunctive in final clauses ;
especially with as and Scppa in Homer. The av here is always
join.'d to the particle, and (as in protasis) it adds nothing to
the sense which can be made perceptible in English. E. g.

Ueideo, as av pot Tipfjv peydXnv Kal kvSos aprjai, obey, that thou
may est gain for me great honor and glory. II. XVI, 84. (Here ws
av uprjai seems to be merely a weaker form of expression than as
ciprjai would have been.) 'A\X' Wi, pr) p' epedil^e, o-aarepos as Ke
venai, that thou mayest go the more safely. H. I, 32. 'AXX' ovtos pev
vvv o~ol tip.' eyjserai, 6(ppa K€V ev8y croiaiv ev\ peydpoiatv. Od. Ill,
359. Ylpoadeopeda .... o-vpTrep\j/ai f]plv, as av piv k^eXapev
i< rr]S \apns. HdT. I, 36. 'AXX' edaapev, (plXoi, enrfXov avrov. as
av els vttvov ire err) . SOPH. Phil. 825. Tovtl Xa(3av pov to cnaaSeiov
vnipexe avadev, as av pr] p' 6pao~tv ol deoi. ARIST. Av. 1508.
Kai (pare aiirov toiovtov elvai, on as av (paivrjrai as KaXXiaros Kai
apio-Tos. Plat. Symp. 199 A. "Av ye rivas vnonTevr/ eXevdepa
(ppovTjpara evovras pi) emrpe^/eiv aura ap^eiv, {TroXtpovs Kivel) on as
av tovtovs pera npo(pdo-eas dnoXXvy, that he may destroy them.
PLAT. Rep. VIII, 567 A. 'Qs av pdQrjs, avTaKOvaov. Xen. An.
H, 5, 16. See also An. VII, 4, 2; Aesc'h. Prom. 10 (<bs av), 824
(onas av), Eumen. 573 (on-coy av).

Note 3. (a.) Homer and Herodotus sometimes use av or Ke in
final clauses with the same particles before the Optative, with no
apparent effect upon the verb. E. g.

Km piv paKporepov Ka\ ndacrova Qrjuev I8eo~0ai, mj Kev ^aiKrjKeao-i.
(pikos -rravreaai yevoiro. Od. VIII, 20. 'Evvrjpap 8' is re Ixos lei

f'dov' ve 8' cipa Zeii? arvve^es, o(ppa Ke 8do~o~ov dXiirXoa rel^ea Be In.
1. XII, 25. 2v 8e pe irpoieis es Trarepa, o<pp' av eXolprjv oapi.
Od. XXIV, 334. Aiapv%a (apvaaev), oicas av to o-TpaToneSov
Ifipvpevov Kara varov Xdfioi. IIdt. I, 75. Tavra de nep\ eavTov
eaepvve Ta>v8e elveKev, oKas av pr) opeovres ol SprjXtKes XvneotaTO
Ka\ e7Ti(3ovXevoiev, dXX' eVe polos o~<pi doKeoi elvai pr) opeacri, in
order that his campanions might not be offended by seeing him and plot
against him, hit that he might appear to them to be of another nature by
their not seeing him. Id. I, 99.

(b.) Apart from this use, however, the Optative can be regularly
joined with av in any final clause, if it forms an apodosis with the
verb, to which there is a protasis expressed or distinctly understood.
Such Optative with av can follow primary as well as secondary
tenses. (§ 31, N. 2.) E. g.

'HyeicrBa opxnBpo'io. as Kev tis (pair] ydpov eppevai eKTos dicovav,
let him lead off the dance, so that any one tvho should hear without
would say there was a marriage. Od. XXIII, 134. 'Qs d' av
rjbto-Ta TavTa (paivoiTO , ovtos tis avra TavTa TrapaaKevdaei, lit. bui
each one must acquire these things for himself, to cause that they would
appear most agreeable (if any one should experience them). Xen Cyr.

70 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. \J 41, 1

VII, 5, 81. "EbwKe X9'lllaTa 'Avra\Ki8a, oiras av, TrXrjpadevTot
vavTLKoi) vtto Aa<e8aip,ovlcov, oi 'Afl-qvaloi udXXov rr)s elpr)vrjs it poo-
be oivro. Xkx. Hell. IV, 8, 16. (Here TrXjjpcodevTos vavrtKov, ij
the navy should be manned, stands as a protasis to the Optative
npoadeoivro av.)

Such sentences as Dem. Phil. II, 66, 15, ws 8e KcoXvo-air' av
eiceivov npdrreiv ravra, navreXuis dpyais e'xfre' ^u' as t° anH measures
by which you could prevent him from doing these things, you are wholly
i?iactive, are not final clauses, but relative sentences with an ante-
cedent implied. See § 65, 1, N. 4.

Remark. M i) , lest, can be followed by a verb with av only in a
regular apodosis after verbs oi' fearing, &c. (See § 46, N. 3.) "iva
is never used with av, except when it means where. A single case
of iva with Ke in a final clause occurs, Od. XII, 156: — 'AXX* epea»
\itv tyuiv, iva eioores rj ne 8dvcop.ev, rj Kev dXevafitvoi Odvarov xa\
Kypa (pvy<op.(v. But here the *<f belongs not to ha, but to the
Subjunctives: see § 87, Note.

Note 4. A purpose can be expressed by a relative and the
Future Indicative (§ 65, 1), or by the Future Participle (§ 109, 5).
For the use of wore to express a purpose, see § 98, 2.

2. As all final clauses express the purpose or motive
of some person, they admit of the double construction of
indirect discourse (§ 77, 2) ; so that, instead of the Op-
tative after secondary tenses, we can have the mood and
tense which the person himself might have used when he
conceived the purpose in his own mind. That is, we
can say either rj\0ev Iva tSoi, he came that he might see
(by § 44, 1) ; or rjXOev Iva Ihy, because the person himself
would have said ep-^ofiat, 'iva iSco, I come that I may see.

Hence the Subjunctive in final clauses after second-
ary tenses is nearly as common as the more regular
Optative. E. g.

Ett t k\ ao-avro 8" oXeOpov dvdpanrois, Iva fieri Ka\ eo-crofiivoio-iv
aoiorj. Od. VIII, 579. Kal e7riTr)8ts ere ovk rjyeipov, "iva cos rjSiara
didyrjs. Pl-AT. Crit. 43 B. UXola KareKavaev iva fir) Kvpos

« lah^ \ ?EN; An" *' 4' 18# 'AXkil' & av T0' at' ocpBaXfiuv eXov,
rj nplv eirrjev, oepp' ev yiyvd>o-K.ns r)pev Beov i)8e *a\ liv8pa. II. V,
127. Apia-revs £vve{3ovXevev e/arXeiiaai, ottojs eni irXiov 6 alros
avriaxj} • J-HUC. lf 65. HX6ov TTpecrlievo'dp.evoi, onus pr) o-Cplcri to
Attikov (vavriKov) ■npoo-yevop.evov ep.7r68u>v yevrjTai. TilUC. I, oi.
E^copoui/ e\ Twv oIkicov, onus p.r) Kara (pais n poo-(pe putvr at kui
<r<piaiv en roil io-ov yiyvwvrai, dXX' .... rjaaovs aai. Thuc.

S 44, 2.] SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER SECONDARY TENSES. 71

II, 3. Tavras iva KcoXvrjd ol vopoi crvvrjyayov vpas, ov^ iva kv plat
rols dbiKovcri ttoit)T(. Dem. F. L. 341, 12. Kai nfpl rovricv e'pvi)-
adrjv, Iva p.r) raxird ndBrjTt . Dem. 01. Ill, 30, 10. (Here the pur
pose was conceived in the form, Iva pr) ravrd nddioa-iv.)

Remark. This principle applies equally well to the clauses
which follow otto)? and oncos pr) after verbs of striving (§ 45), and
pr) after verbs of fearing, &c. (§ 46).

This is a favorite construction with certain authors, as Thucy-
dides ; who also, on the same principle, prefer the Indicative to the
Optative in ordinary indirect quotations after secondary tenses.
See § 70, 2, Remark 2.*

Note 1. This use of the Subjunctive instead of the Op-
tative makes the language more vivid, by introducing as nearly
as possible the exact words or thoughts of the person whose
purpose is thus stated.

As the two forms are equally correct (the only difference
being that just stated), we find them both in the same sen-
tence, as we find the Indicative and Optative interchanged in
indirect quotations. (See § 70, 2, Remark 1.) E. g.

E^a/coffious \oyd8as i^tKpivav, ottws tHjv re EwnroXaiv tirjcrap
(pvXuices, Kai r)v ts dWo ti berj, ra^ii ^ui/ecrrcorf r irapay ly vavrat ,
they selected them, that they might be guards of Epipolae, and that they
might be on hand if they should be needed for anything else. Thuc.
VI, 96. Ylapavla^ov be (ppvKrovs, onoos daaajr) rd arjptla rots noXtpiois
fj Kai pr) fiorjdolep , they raised fire-signals at the same time, in order
that the enemy's signals might be unintelligible to them, and that they
(the enemy) might not bring aid. Thuc. III, 22.

The ordinary interpretation of the latter and similar passages,
proposed by Arnold, viz. " that the Subjunctive mood indicates the
immediate, and the Optative the remote consequence of the action
contained in the principal verbs, the second being a consequence of
the first," manifestly cannot apply to the first example.

Note 2. (a.) The use of the Optative for the Subjunctive in
final clauses after -primary tenses is, on the other hand, very rare,
and is to be viewed as a mere irregularity of construction. It oc-
curs chiefly in Homer. E. g.

"A^a> rfjX' 'i^aKTjj, Iva poi [iioTov noXvv dX<poi. Od. XVII, 200.
So II. I, 344, 0777ra)S pa-^ioivro.

* Madvig remarks (Bemerkungen, p. 12) that he finds in the first two
books of Thucydides no example of the Optative after onais or pr] depend-
ing on a secondary tense of a verb of striving or fearing ; although he
cites f \j 'teen examples of the Subjunctive from the same books. In pure
final clauses after secondary tenses, the usage in Thucydides is nearly
equally divided between the Subjunctive and the Optative. Xenophon,
t>n the other hand, generally follows the rule, \ 44, 1.

72 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 44, 2.

(b.) Sometimes the Optative is used because the leading verb
implies a reference to the past as well as the present. E. g.

Tovtov ?x€l T0V fpoTrov 6 vofios, iva prjds Tret.cr8ijvai pnS1 f^airarrf-
drjvai yevoir* enl ra 8r)pw. Dem. Androt. 596, 17. (Here i'xa
implies also the past' existence of the law ; the idea being, the law
was made as it is, so that it might not be possible, &c.)

3. The secondary tenses of the Indicative are uned in
final clauses after iva, sometimes after m or otto?, to
denote that the end or object is dependent upon some
unfulfilled condition, and therefore is not or was not
attained. This construction is peculiar to Attic Greek.

These tenses of the Indicative have here the same difference
in meaning as in conditional sentences (§ 49, 2), the Imperfect
referring to present time or to continued or repeated action in
past time, the Aorist and Pluperfect to past time. Thus Iva
tovto enparrfv means in order that he might be doing this (but
he is not doing it), or that he might have been doing this (but he
was not) ; Iva tovto enpa£ei> means that he might have done this
(but he did not) ; Iva tovto eVen-pa^ei means that he might have
done this (but lie has not). E. g.

Ovk av io-xop-rjv, k.t.X., iv' r) rv(p\6s ts <a\ kKvcdv prjbfv, in that
case I should not have forborne (to destroy my hearing), so that I
should be both blind and devoid of hearing (implying that redly he is
not so). SOPH. O. T. 1387. $e{), (bev, to pr] to. it pay par avdpcoirois
eXeiv (payvrjv, Iv" t)o-av pnbev ol deivoi Xoyoi, Alas! alas! that the
facts have no voice for men, so that words of eloquence might be as
nothing. Eur. Hippol. Frag. 442. 'Exprjv elo-Kakivavras paprvpas
ttoWovs Trapao-r]pi]vaadai KeXfvaai ras biaOrjicas, 1v\ « ti tyiyvero
dp.<Pio-fi>]Trio-ipov, f)v (Is ra ypdppara Tavr eiravekOetv. DEM. Aph.

II, 837, 11. (This implies that they did not have the will thus
sealed, so that it is not now possible to refer to it in case of dispute.)
'Exprjv avrovs fqrciv, Iva dnnWaypeda tovtov tov onpayvyov,
they ought to have made an investigation, in order that we might have
been already freed from this demagogue (but we have not been freed
from him). DiNARCH. in Demosth. p. 91, 24. 'EtfTncrev av pe tov
7ralSa, tv* ei pr] irapeSioovv txrjO'ev oiicaiov X<?yeii> iooicovv. DEM. Aph.

III, 849, 24. Ti p' oi> Xaftiov eKTeivas evtivs, a> s eoei£a pfjirort
tpavTov avBpiwoiaiv evdev r) yeyws; that I might never have shown as
I have done. Soph. O. T. 1391. Ei yap p' vivo yr)v r/Kec, is|if(
0eo? pr)re tls uXXos Tolao' cycyr)6a, would that he had sent me
under the earth, so that neither any God nor any one else should havt
rejoiced at these things (as they have done). Aesch. Prom. 152. (If
we read cireyrjtiei, we must translate, might be rejoicing, as the$

§ 45.J SECONDARY TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 73

are.) Tt btjr .... ova eppi^r epavrr/v TrjcrS" dxro nerpas, onats
t&v iravTav novcov aTrrjWayr] v ; why did I not throw myself fi om this
rock, that I might have been freed from all my toils ? Id. 747.

Remark. This construction is especially common when a final
clause depends either upon an apodosis which contains a secondary-
tense of the Indicative (§ 49, 2) implying the non-fulfilment of the
condition, as is the case in examples 1, 3, 4, and 5, above, or upon
a verb expressing an unfulfilled wish, as in examples 2 and 7. In
these cases the Indicative seems to be used by a sort of assimila-
tion.

Note 1. The particle av is very rarely joined with the second-
ary tenses of the Indicative in final clauses. When it is used, it
denotes that the sentence is an apodosis (as well as a final clause),
with a protasis expressed or understood. E. g.

ZwvTi efiet (3or)delv, oncus on diKaioraros ow ko\ ocricoTaroff e£rj r«
fcoV Kai TtXevrtjaas drifiuiprjTos av Ka<a>v ap.apTT)p.aTu>v ey iy vero ,
i. e. that he might be exempt from punishment after death (as he would
be, if he had so lived). Plat. Leg. XII, 959 B.

Note 2. The Indicative can never be used in this construction,
unless it is distinctly implied that the result is not (or was not)
attained, that is, unless the final clause refers either to the present
or to the past (as in the examples given above) : if it refers to the
future, it must be expressed in the ordinary way by the Subjunctive
or Optative, even although it depends on one of the class of verbs
mentioned above (Remark). Both constructions may occur in the
same sentence. E. g.

Obs (t<3i> veo>v rovs dyadovs) fjfiels av e<pv\aTTop.tv eV aKpoTvoXfi,
iv a nrjbfls avrovs 8 i€(pde cpfv , dAA' eWiSij d(piKot,VTO els ttjv tjXi-
Klav, -^prjaip-OL yiyvoLvro rats noXeaiv, ice should have kept them
(in. that case) in the Acropolis, that no one might corrupt them (as
they are now corrupted), and that when (in the future) they should
become of age they might become useful to their states. Peat. Men. 89
B. Taur' av rj8r) Xeyeiv npos iip.ds tirtxelpovv, ij/' el8rjre, k.t.X., I
should (if that were so) be now undertaking to say this to you, that you
might (hereafter) know, &c. Dem. Aristocr. 623, 11. See also the
examples under § 32, 3 (b.).

B. Object Clauses with "On-coy and "Oncos \xr) after Verbs of

Striving , Sfc.

§ 45. After verbs signifying to strive, to take care, to
effect, and the like, the Future Indicative is regularly
used with 07ra>? and 07r&>9 fir], if the leading verb is
primary. The Subjunctive also occurs, but much lesa
frequently than the Future.

4

/

74 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 45

If the leading verb is secondary, the Future Optative
may be used, to correspond to the Future Indicative
after primary tenses ; but generally the Future Indica-
tive is employ id here also, on the principle of § 44, 2.
The other tenses of the Optative are sometimes used, to
correspond to the same tenses of the Subjunctive after
primary tenses ; or the Subjunctive itself may be em
ployed (§ 44, 2). E. g.

'EiripeXe'iTai ottcos (or ottcos pf]) yevrjcrerac or yevrjTai, he takes core
that it may (or may not) happen. 'EnepeXeiTO ottcos yevi)o-tTai, yepfj-
ctoito, or yevoiTo, he took care that it should happen.

(Fut.) "Qcrnep tou noipeva del eTripeXelaBai ottcos o~q>at reeaov-
rai al oies kci'i ra eVtrr/fieia ec-ovtriv, ovtco kcu rov crTparrjyov eni-
peXeicrBai del uncos acooi re ol crrpartwrat 'iaovrai koi to. eirnffdeca
e£ovcrt, kcu, ov eveica tTTpaTevovrai., tovto e crrat . Xen. Mom. Ill,
2, 1. KaXov to Trapao~Kevu£eiv ottcos cos /3eXrtcrrai e crovrai riov ttoXi-
rcov al \j/v%ai. Plat. Gorg. 503 A. MiKpav irpovotav e'xeiv &0Kfi ottcos
6 vopos Kvpios ear at koi pfjre crvy^vdrjireTcii. pr]T av ptra-
iroirjdfjaeTai.; Dem. Aristoor. 640,10. KaXcor 8e brfpaycoyfjtreis,
rjv (TKOTTfjs ottcos ol fieXrioTot, pev tcis Tipcts e^ovcriv, ol 8 uXXoi
prjdev dducfjirovTai. Isoc. Nicocl. p. 18 A. § 16. "Opa okcos pf)
a.TT0crTj]CT0VTai. Hdt. Ill, 36. Sol peXeTco okcos pf] ere b^erai.
Hdt. I, 9. <J>potTi£' ottcos pr]8eu dvd^tov ttjs Tiprjs Tavrrjs TT pd£e is.
ISOC. Nicocl. p. 22 B. § 37. Tt pdXtar' ev anaac diecnrovb'ao'Tai rols
vopois ; ottcos pf] y ( vr) ao vt at ol irepl dXXf]\ovs (povoi.. Dem. Lept.
505, 9. Aei evXajSelaBai, pdXiara pev ottcos pf] eyyevf)treo~Bov, av
8e eyyevrjcrBov, ottcos otl Tci^iara e kt er pf] a e ct Bou . Plat. Rep.
VIII, 564 C. (For the force of the Future Perfect, see § 29, N. 1.)

(Sub).) AXXov tov fTTipeXf]CT€L. f) ottcos on [SsXticttoi ttoXItoi
copev; Plat. Gorg. 515 B. ILipacn<fuci£ecT#ai ottcos o~vv Beat dycovi-
fco peB a. Xent. Cyr. I, 5, 14. Oi> yap ottcos TrXelovos il^ios yfvrjrai
eVripeXeiYat, dXX' ottcos ovtos on irXelora copa'ia Kapn co o'er cm.
(Subj. and Fut. combined.) Xkn Symp. Vlli, 25.

(Fut. Opt.) "E^ vtto TToXXfjs eiripeXeias ottcos cos eXd)(to~Ta pep
b-^roLTO, (Xd^io-ra 8' d ko v cto t to, eXa'^ccrra S' epoiTO. XeX.
Oecon. VII, 5. (Here the construction alter a primary tense would
be, ottcos b\j/erai .... dKovcrerai .... eprjTai.) 'EirepeXelTO ottcos
p.f] acriToi TTOTe i'crotvTo. Xex. C)t. VIII, 1, 43. See the other ex-
amples of the Future Optative under § 26, Note 1 (a).

(Fut. Ind. after Secondary Tenses.) "ETrpaao-ov ottcos tis fiof]Beia
fj^ei. TlIUC. Ill, 4. HpoBvprjBcvTos ivos £kcio~tov ottcos f] vavs npo-
e$ei. TlIUC. VI, 31. Ei'Xa/rJe uracil TrapfKeXevtaBe dXXf]Xois, ottcos pq
XfjircTe SiacpBapevTfs- PLAT. Gorg. 487 D. OiicV ottcos opBf] irXtv-
trerat 7rpoei'3ero, ciAXa KaB' avrbv ottcos eV! rols t^Bpols e ct rat
TrapftTKevacrev. Dem. F. L. 419, 28.

(Pres. or Aor. Opt.) 'EneptXeTO avTiov, ottcos del dv8paTTo8a ^ta*

§ 45.] '07T<uy AFTER VERBS OF STRIVING. 75

rfXoifi»- Xen. Cyr. VIII, 1, 44. 'AneKptvaro, on avro pr'Xoi
oncos KaXcos e'xoi. Xen. An. I, 8, 13. 'EnepeXrjKei be avrols oncos a
innayperns elbeirj ovs beot nepneiv. Xen. Hull. Ill, 3, 9.

(Subj. after Secondary Tenses.) *Enpacnev oncos noXepos yevn-
rai. Thuc. T, 57. ' Enpacrcrov oncos an oar i a coo~ iv 'Adqvaicov rrjV
ttoKiv. Id. Ill, 70. 'Sli/ehai nap avrcov oncos prj dnicopev etc Maze-
bovlas. he bribed them to effect that we should not leave Macedonia
Dem. Cor. 236, 12. (Subj. after Historic Present.)

It will thus be seen that the Future Indicative is the mos.
common construction in these sentences, after both primary and
secondary tenses ; the Future Optative, which is theoretically
the regular form after secondary tenses, being rarely used, for
the reason stated in § 26, Note 2.

For the distinction between these object clauses and final
clauses, see § 43, Remark.

Remark. "Ottos (like cos) is originally a relative adverb, mean-
ing as. See Thuc. VII, 67, ovtcos, on-coy bvvavrai, as they can.
Then it is used in indirect questions, in the sense of otco rponco, how,
in what way, and is followed by the Future Indicative ; as o-Konelv
oncos rj noXis crto^^crerai, to see how the city shall be saved. So
rois novnpois, on cos fir) bcocrovcr i biicnv, obbv beiicvvcri, he shows them
how they can avoid suffering punishment (otco rponco pfj bcocrovri).
Dem. Timoc. 733, 20. (See below, Note' 2.) Tlien, by a slight
modification in sense, it may denote also the object to which the
striving, &c, is directed; so that o-Koneiv (or o-Konelv tovto) oncos 17
noXis crc>i0fjo-{Tai may mean to see (to this, inz.) that the city shall be
saved. Here, however, the Subjunctive is sometimes allowed, as
the interrogative force of onws is lost sight of, and its force as a
final particle, meaning in order that, begins to appear. E. g.

SKoVet on cos prj etjapvos eaei a vvv Xeyeis, see that you do not
deny what you now say. Plat. Euthyd. 283 C. Inenreov iar\v
on cos eXd^cara p.ev rpavpara Xa.j3cop.ev, cos e'Xd^tcrru 6e crcopara
dvbpcov dnofidXcopev , we must see that we receive as few ivounds as
possible, and that we lose as few men's lives as possible. Xen. An. I V,
6, 10.*

From this it becomes established as a final particle, and denotes
the purpose in ordinary final clauses. From the original force of
oncoff as a relative, used in indirect questions in the sense of hoiv, we

* Compare Dem. Megal. 207, 5, VKonelv e'£ otov rponov pi) ytvr)-
arovTai (cpiXoi), to see in what way they can be. prevented from becoming
friends; and Thdc. I, 65, enpacrcrev 07177 fbfaXla tis yevrjo-erai, he
was effecting that, &c. ; quoted by Madvig, Syntax, p. 125, whose views in
the main are given in the text, above. See also Thuc. IV, 128, enpatr-
<rtv otco rpoi co rd)(icTTa to'is pev £v/i/3?j0-erai tcov be dnaXXd^f'
rat.

/

76 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 45

must explain its occasional use in indirect quotations in the sense
of a>s or on (§ 78). See also § 65, 1, Rem.

Note 1. "Onas in this construction sometimes (though rarely)
takes the particle av when it is followed by the Subjunctive ; never,
when it is followed by the Future Indicative. Its use is the same
as in ordinary final clauses (§ 44, 1, N. 2).

When liv is used with the Optative after a verb of striving, it
denotes an ordinary apodosis, as in § 44, 1, N. 3 (b), and onas is
simply interrogative. E. g.

H aXXov e(piipevoi 8iKaaovaiv y rovrov, onus av eKao~roi pfjr
f\a)0'i rdXXorpia pyre roov avrav o~t e p avrai ; Plat. Rep. IV, 43.1
E. 'Eaf 8' eXBy, prj^avyreov, onas av 8ia(pvyy KCt( py 8 a 8iKyv 6
e^dpos- Id. Gorg. 481 A. MoAAoi' y npocrdev elo~yet avrovs onoos a v
kol i'xovrts n o'Ua8e d(p I Kavrai. Xen. An. VI, 1, 17. (Here
e'ntpeXeia or some such word is understood as the subject of elo-yei.)
2ko7tco, onas a v cos paara 8 idyoiev , ypels 8' av pdXiara av e v<p pai-
voipeda Oeapevoi avrovs, I try to see how they might (if they should
choose) live the easiest lives, &c. Xen. Symp. VII, 2. So empeXy-
Brjvai onas av yevoi.ro, Id. Cyr. I, 6, 7.

Note 2. (a.) The Homeric construction which most re-
sembles that of § 45 is found after such verbs as cppd£ouai,
ftovXeva, Xevao-a, or peppypl^a, to consider, and neipda, to try.
Here onus or as is used with the Subjunctive (sometimes with
Kf ) after primary tenses, and with the Optative after secondary
tenses. E. g.

Avrol 8e (ppa^aped" on as b\' apiara yevyrai, let us ourselves
consider how the very best things may be done. Od. XIII, 365. <f>pa-
^dpeff (imperf.) 'Apyeioiaiv onoos 0% apicrra yevoiro . Od. Ill,
129. $pd£eo-8ai onnas Ke pvyarrjpas kt e ivy s- Od. I. 295. Ilepi-
<ppa£apeda ndvres voarov, onoos eXdyaiv, i. e. how he may come.
Od. I, 76. 4>pacrcrfrat as Ke veyrai, ejrei noXvpij^avus eariv. Od.
I, 205. "Apa npdcrcra Ka\ onlaaa Xcvaaei, on as ox apicrra ye vyrai,
i. e. he holes to see how, &c. II. Ill, 110. Meppypi£ev on as dno-
Xoiaro ndaai vrjes. Od. IX, 554. Meppfjpi^e Kara cjjpeva air ' A\iXya
ripyo-y (or Tiur)o-ei), i. e. how he might honor Achilles. II. II, 3.
BovXevov on as b\ apicrra yevoiro. Od. IX. 420. Heipa on as Kev
81] crhv narp'iha yaiav l<yai, i. e. try to find means by which you
may go, &c. Od. IV. 545. Yleiia. as Ke Tpaes vnepqbiaXoi and'
\avrai. II. XXI, 459.

In some of these examples onas or as seems to be used as an in-
terrogative, meaning hoio, the Subjunctive of the direct question
being the common Homeric form explained in § 87. (For the Sub-
junctive with Ke, see § 87, Note.) But in other examples, especially
those with neipda, there is a nearer approach to the construction of
§ 45. The two following examples will further illustrate the
Homeric usage: — fj8y yap poi dvubs eneo~o'i"<maL o<fip' e (pa pvvo$

§45.] 'OncuS AFTER VERBS OF STRIVING. 77

Tpcofcro-iv, H. VI, 361; cppa£eo~dco prj t'is oi dpelvoov ado pd\r]Tai,,
11. V, 411. See also Od. VI. 113.

(b.) In Homer ottcos takes the Future Indicative chiefly when it
is used merely as an indirect interrogative, with no reference to a
purpose, as in II. II, 252, ovBe rt ttu> adqba idpev ottcos i'arai rade
(pya, we do not yet even know certainly how these things are to be ; or
in Od. XIII, 376, cppd£ev oncos purjaTr/paiv civaifteai ^fipaj e(p i) ere i s ,
consider how you will lay hands on the shameless suitors. It may take
the Future (as well as other tenses) when it is used as a simple rela-
tive; as in II. I, 136, ottcos durai-iov earai, as shall be an equivalent.
(See Remark, above.) Occasionally also we find tbe Future after
oncos in final clauses (§ 44, 1, N. 1).

Note 3. As many verbs of this class imply caution, they
may be followed by the simple prj (without onus), like verbs
of caution and fearing (§ 4G). See especially 6p6> and okottS>.
Here, as elsewhere, pij takes the Subjunctive more frequently
than the Future Indicative. E. g.

2K07rei 817 pr) tovtois avrbv e ^aiTTjar/Tai kci\ KaraytXaaTj.
Dem. Mid. 563, 26. *Opa ovv pi) ri kcu viiv ipy do- 7; rat. Plat.
Symp. 213 D. "Opa pi) ttoWcov eicdaTcp i)pa>v ^eipcoi/ 8ei)a(i.
Xen. Cyr. IV, 1, 18. "iKotrei, pi) aoi irpdvot rj tov dcoii cpiAa/crea.
Soph. 0. C. 1180. "Opaav, pi) vvv piv tu ev^epijr napijs- Soph.
Phil. 519.

(See the corresponding use of owns pi), instead of pi), after verbs
of fearing, &c, § 46, Note 2. It is often difficult to draw the fine
between the two constructions of § 45 and § 46.)

Note 4. 'Qs is sometimes, though rarely, used instead of ottcos
after verbs of striving. Here the Subjunctive is more common than
the Future Indicative. E. g.

'ETTip-eXoui/rai u>s e XTI ovtcos- Xex. Oecon. XX, 8. Qs Se koKcos
f £ei tci vptrepa, epol pe\i)aei. Xex. Cyr. HI, 2, 13. 'ETrepe\i)9r) cos
t v x o 1 e v navrcov tgh> KaXav. Id. VII, 3, 17. 27reuSoires a> s Zfiis pi)iroT
ap^eiev 6ea>v. Aesct-i. Prom. 203. Occasionally we find the Sub-
junctive with av : to ova av yva> ayada eivai (TTipikeladai cos av
irpax8rj' . . . . Oil cpepei Kapnbv, i)v pi) tls eVtpeX^rai d> s av
ravTO. nepaivnTai. Xen. Hipparch. IX, 2. (See above, N. 1.)

Note 5. Some verbs which are regularly followed by an
Infinitive of the object occasionally take an object clause with
on-coy (rarely with other particles), in nearly or quite the same
sense : —

(a.) Verbs of exhorting, entreating, and commanding are
sometimes followed by ottcos, and those of forbidding by oirm
^7, after tne analogy of verbs of striving. E. g.

78 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 45

Ato~o~ea6ai 8/ pit avrSs offu>s vrjpeprea e'inv, and implore hint
thyself to speak the truth. Od. Ill, 19. (Compare the regular con
struction, ovhe at \io-(ropa\ peveiv, H. I, 174.) Alo~o~eTo 8' aiet
"H<pai(TTov K\vTOfpyou on (os \vo~eiev Apna, he implored him to
liberate Ares. Od. VIII, 844. KeiVw t epi)v dyyeiXar (vtoXtjv,
on (OS rbv ffaida 8el(-ei. SOPH. Aj. 567. AiaKe\evovTai o Trots
Ti/KopTjO-eTai ndvras robs toiovtovs- Plat. Rep. VIII, 549 E. So
napayyeXXei offws pt) eaovrat, Id. Ill, 415 B. "E/iorye dnrjyo-
peves Sffas pfj tovto an o k p ivoi prjv. (Fut. Opt.) Id. I, 339 A.
'hffciprjpevov aiiru) uffois prj8ev ipei fov f)yeirai, when he is forbidden
to say a word of what he believes. Id. I, 337 E. See Soph. Trach. 604.

In Od. XVII, 362, we find atrpvvev as av nvpva Kara pvrjo-Tfjpas
dyeipoi, where the av is used with the particle as in the examples
under § 44, 1, N. 3 (a).

(6.) "iva is used in the same sense in a single passage of the
Odyssey, III, 327 : — AiWecr^ai 8e ptv aiirbs "iva vrjpepres evianny
and implore him yourself to speak the truth.

This use of "iva is not found in Attic Greek, but it reappears in
the later language. E. g.

'Ei'roXiji' xaivtjv 8i8a>pi vp'iv, Iva ayanare d\\r]\ovs, a new com-
mandment J give unto you, that ye love one another. Joh. Evang.
XIII, 34. So e'8o;<V "lt/a eK^aXXaxriv, Luc. IX, 40. So in Latin,
rogal ul liceat.

(c.) A case of a>s and the Subjunctive (instead of an object In-
finitive) after a verb implying a promise is found in II. I, 558 : —

Tfj <r 61(0 Karavevo-ai (TrjTvpov, a>s 'A^'A^a r iprj cr rj s, oXeo-ys 8e
jroXeay em vnvalv 'Axatav, that you promised by your nod to honor
Achilles, &c.

Note 6. (a.) On the other hand, some verbs which regularly
take onus are occasionally found with an Infinitive of the object,
sometimes with the article. (See § 46, N. 8.) E. g.

'Aet riva ineptXovTo <r<pmv uvt(ov iv rais dpxais elvat, they always
took care that one of their own number should be in the offices (where
we should expect onus tis earai or Zvoito). TllUC. VI, 54. Ov8
(TTcpeXrjOnv rov 8i8acnca\6v poi riva yevio-Qai ra>v inioTaptvuv.
Xen. Mem. IV, 2, 4. So the Infinitive with to, Mem. IV, 3, 1.

(b.) Verbs of this class can be followed by an indirect question
introduced by et, whether. E. g.

Et gvpnovijo-eis na\ £vvfpyd(T€i o-KoVet, see whether thou wilt assist
me, &c. Soph. Ant. 41. (See § 46, Note 6, c.)

Note 7. (a.) Both onus and onws m7? are sometimes used
elliptically with the Future Indicative in exhortations and pro-
hibitwns, depending on some Imperative like o-Konci, take care,
understood. "Onus pf] allows also the Subjunctive. E. g.

"Onus dvrjp tVet (sc. c^Tret), prove thyself a man. "Oncos poi,

§ 4.3.] '07ro>y AFTER VERBS OF STRIVING. 79

to avSpame, fifj epeis on eon ra 8a>beKa Sty e£, see that you do not
tell me that twice six are twelve. Plat. Rep. I, 337 A. "O^cor ovv
((reade avdpes agioi ttjs e'Xevdepias (sc. o-KOTre Ire) , prove yourselves men
worthy of freedom. Xen. An. I, 7,3. "O n as ye , av tl tovtu>v yiyvn-
rai, tovtovs enaive o~e o-0 e Kal Tiprj a ere Kal o~Te<f>av u>o- ere ,
e'pe 8e fxr]' Ka\ peuroi kuv n twv ivavriaiv, on as tovtols opyielaBe.
I)eM. F. L. 355, 17. "07r<ws Toivvv nepl tov iro\ep.ov prjdev e pels ,
see therefore that you say nothing about the war. Id. 370, 22. "Ottqjs
ye w e^airaT^ay f]p.as. Plat. Prot. 313 C. (See § 46, N. 4.)

(&.) We occasionally find the Future Indicative with p.r) in an
independent sentence, expressing a prohibition. This may be ex-
plained by supposing an ellipsis of oncos from the construction just
mentioned (oncos p-fj tovto epels becoming /on) tovto epels) ; but it
seems more natural to consider it as an independent construction.
See § 25, 1, N. 5 (h), and the examples.

Remark. The construction of Note 7 (a) is confined almost
exclusively to the second person of the verb ; yet the first and third
persons are sometimes found. E. g.

Kai 0770)9, aarrep epcorwai npodvpais, ovtco Kal Troielv ide'Kr}-
arovo-iv. Dem. Chers. 99, 14. "Ottcos 8e to ovp.(3o\ov \afiovrts
erreira Trknaiov Kadeoovp-tda. Arist. Eccles. 297.

Note 8. When an Aorist Subjunctive active or middle was to
be used with orrws or onas p-r) after a verb of striving, the second
Aorist was preferred to the first, if both forms were in use. This
arose from the great similarity in form between these first Aorists
and the Future Indicative (as ^ovXevan and f3ov\€vo~ei, /3ouXevoT/rai
and (3ov\evo~eTai.) : this made it natural for a writer, if he intended
to use the Subjunctive at all, to avoid those forms of it which were
nearly identical with the more regular Future Indicative. This of
course did not apply to the first Aorist Subjunctive passive, which
has no resemblance to the Future Indicative. The same remark
applies to the Subjunctive after ov prj, in the construction described
in § 89. In both constructions the Subjunctive differs from the
Future only by being a less vivid form of expression.*

* The general rule, first laid down by Dawes (Misc. Crit. pp. 222 and
228), which declared the first Aorist Subjunctive active and middle a sole-
cism after oncos prj and ov prj, was extended by others so as to include
onus (without pr)), and the Greek authors were emended to conform to it.
As this rule has no other foundation than the accidental circumstance
mentioned in Note 8, it naturally fails in many cases, in some of which
even emendation is impossible. Thus in the example, KeXevovo-i irpoo-Ta-
reiiaai oiras i KirXevo-r) fj o~Tpa.Tid, Xen. An V, 6, 22, eKjrX evaj)
cannot he a mistake for eK7r\evo-ei, as the Attic Future is iKir\evo~opan
or eKiiKevo~ovpai. So in Soph. Phil. 381, ov pi] wot' es ttjv 2<vpou
fK7r\evo~7]s, no emendation is possible. See also Plat. Rep. X, 609
B. ov prj ajroXeo-ij, where the Future would be dno) ft. The rule of

80 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 46.

C. Object Clauses with pr] after Verbs of Fearing, fyc.

§ 46. After verbs and phrases which express or
imply fear, caution, or danger, m-> lest or that, is used
with the Subjunctive if the leading verb is primary, and
with the Optative if the leading verb is secondary. By
the principle of § 44, 2, the Subjunctive can also follow
secondary tenses, in order that the mood in which the
object of the fear originally occurred to the mind may
be retained.

Mr] (like the Latin ne) denotes fear that something

may happen which is not desired ; fir} ov (ut = ne noii)

denotes fear that something may not happen which is

desired. E. g.

$oj3ovpai pr) yivqrai (vereor ne accidat), / fear that it may hap-
pen: (poftovfiat pr) ov ytvrjTai (vereor ut accidat), I fear that it may
not happen. Yivv 8' alvas deidoixa Kara cppeva prj at nape Itttj . II. I,
555. Aei'Soj pr) dr)peo~o~iv eXoop Kai Kvppa yevwpat. Od. V, 473.
Ov (poftf) pi] cr Apyos wcnrep Kcip' dnuKTflvai dtXrj. EuR. Or. 770.
Tloiov eBvos ov So/cet (poftovptvov pi) rt nady; Xex. Cyr. I, 6, 10.
&poi>Ti(co pr) Kpariaroi/ fj pot aiyav. Xen. Mem. IV, 2, 39. QvXar-
ropevos pfj do^T] pavddvea/ tl. Id. IV, 2, 3. Ae'SotKa pr) oiS' ocrtof rj
aTTuyopeveiv. Plat. Rep. II, 368 B. Ta nepl tt)s tyvxrjs 7roXXr)v

Dawes is now generally abandoned; but most editors still hold to it (at
least in practice) so far as to exclude the prohibited forms with ottoh
when it follows verbs of striving, &c, and with ov pi). Even here, how-
ever, the rule is maintained only by changing many passages against
Mss. authority. Thus in Dem. 01. I, p. 9, 17, all Mss. except one read
irapao~Kfvdo,ao~dai 6Vci>j ev6tvhe ftorj 6 r) arjre , Kai pr) rrddnTt Tavrov,
while nearly all editions have j$or)6i)o-tTe. In the Third Philippic of
Demosthenes two similar examples occur: p. 128, 25, onus prjUeii
dvnrps-^eL, tovto aKorreiadai, where all Mss. have dvarpe^, which
Schaefer emended to dvarpe\f/ei\ and p. 125, 10, orrcos pr) dovXevo-ov-
crtu TrpaTTovres, where the weight of Mss. authority decidedly favors
dovXtvcrcoaiv. For ov pr), see § 89, 2, Rem. 2.

Whatever view is taken of these last examples, there certainly seems to
be no reason for extending the rule of Dawes to ottoos in pure final clauses,
as in these the Future is used only by exception (§ 44, 1, N. 1). There
is no objection, therefore, to such sentences as these: — cov evtica iirtTa-
drjvat, ottos dnoXavo-wpev Kai onus yevo>pefla, Xex. Cyr VII,
5, 82; and fK<Xncriav t;vvr}yayov, orras vnopvi) a co ica\ pep\}f(opai,
Thuc. II. 60. So with ottoos dpio~T07Toir)cra>VTai, Thuc. VII, 39.
In elliptical prohibitions with oncos pr) (§ 45, N. 7) the Subjunctive seems
to be allowed from the analogy of ordinary prohibitions (§ 86).

§ 4C] Mr) AFTER V^ERBS OF F E A R I N O . 81

amoriav 7iap«Y/i rots avdpamois, pr) eVeiSai/ anaSXayfj tov croyparos
ovftapoi i'ri 17, ciAAa 8 ia(pd ( i prjrai re Kal dnoXXiirrTai . Pi. AT.
Pliaed. 70 A. Ovkovv vvv Kal tovto kivBvvos, pr) XdjScocrt npoaTaras
avrwv rivets rovrav, there is danger of this, that they may take, &c.
Xen. An. VII, 7, 31. KivSvvos e'ori, pr) pcTaftdXuvTai /cat ye-
vavrai perd ra>v troXepiarv. Isoc. Plataic. p. 303 E. § 38. 'Okvoj ur)
pot 6 Avaias Taneivbs (pavrj. Plat. Phaedr. 257 C. EvXafiov 8e pz)
(pavys kqkos yeycios- Soph. Trach. 1129. Ovdev deivoii eo-ovrai pr)
fi o T) 8 e a & i ravrrj. Hdt. VII, 235. 'Ywoincuopev /cat vpas pr) ov
koivoI airofiriTe . ThUC. 111,53. Alaxyvopevos pr) (popriKais cr/co-
n<i>pev. Plat. Theaet. 183 E.

Af laas pr) na>s oi c pvaaiaro veKpov 'Avaio/. H. V, 298. A^Vro
yap pr) Nu/crt 6orj drrodvpia epSot. II. XIV, 261. 'Eyco yap rjprju
fKnexXrjypevrr <pd/3a>, prj pot to kuXXos tiXyos e'£eupot noTt. bOPH.
Trach. 25. "ESetcrai/ oi "EXXrrves pr) ■trpoadyoiev trpbs to (cs'pas Kal
avTovs KaraKoyjse tav . Xen. All. I, 10, 9. Ou/ce'rt eneTidevTo,
oeooiKOTes pr) diroTpr]06 irjarav. Id. Ill, 4, 29. "Eoe taav pr) Xvrra
Tis (banep Kvatv r)piv £ pirenra) koi . Id. V, 7, 26. YrronTevo-as pr)
rr)v Bvyarepa Xeyot, fjpero, having suspected that he might mention his
daughter. Xen. Cyr. V, 2, 9. 'Hdvprjadv rives, evvoovpevoi pr) ra
tViTijfieta ovk e^otfy oiroOev Xapfidvoiev. Xen. An. Ill, 5, 3. OvSftj
yap nivdvvos e'Sd/cet eivai, pr) ris di>a> iropevopevoov Ik tov onurdev eiri-
anotTo. Id. IV, 1, 6.

Ot $>(DKaues ras vr)aovs ovk efioiXovro neaXeeiv, deipaivnvres pr)
ip-nopiov yivcavTai. Hdt. I, 165. Tc3 yap 8«8ieVat pr) Xoyois rjo~-
o-ovs cocrt, roXprjpios npos ra epya i^apovv. THUC. Ill, 83. Ilepi8f>)s
yevopevos pr) en mXe v aa>o- iv at vfjes. ThUC. Ill, 80. EoVtoxt pr)
Tpoiav ddpoiarj (cat ^vvoiKio-rj ndXtv. EUR. Hec. 1138. Ot Beaipevot.
f<poj3oi>i>TO pr) rt, it a 6 rj . Xen. Symp. II, 11. ArjXos rjv ndo-iv
(KOpoj) oTt. vTTepecpofiiiTO pr) oi 6 irdirnos dirod dvrr . Xen. Cyr. I,

It will be seen by the examples that the construction with pr) is
very often used when the leading verb only implies^ the fear, cau-
tion, or danger, as after vironreva and okvo>. On this principle we
must explain passages like II. X, 100; ovde ti 'idpev, pr) 7ra)9 (cat did
vvKTa pevoivr)o-a>o-t pdxeadai, where the idea is ice know of no security
against their deciding to fight during the night, — implying we fear lest
they may.

Remark. These clauses with pr), when they follow verbs of
caution like (pvXdrropai, euXafiovpai, &c., partake of the nature of
final clauses to the same extent with the construction of § 45, since
they imply the end or purpose of the caution. (See § 43, Remark.)
On the other hand, when they follow <po(iovpai and other verbs
expressing fear or danger, no purpose is expressed or implied, but
there is merely an apprehension that something will happen, or, in
some cases, that something is now taking place or has already
happened. We should hence expect that these verbs would follow
the analogy of verbs oi' thinking, &c, and take either the Indicative
with its or the Infinitive, to denote the object of the fear. (Tlii*

s

82 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 46.

actually happens in a few cases ; as ov (pofiovpeOa eX,io-oweo-0ai,
Thuc. V, 105; pfj fyofiuv cos dn-opr/tTfiff, Xex. Cyr. V, 2, 12. bee
below, Note 6.) btill, verbs of fearing, when the object of the
fear is future,^ aa it commonly is, are closely connected in sense
with those like <pv\aTTopai ; as they imply at least a desire
(though not a purpose) to prevent the result. The Greeks
generally apply to both the same construction, and as they say
(pvKaTTopai pf] yevnrai, they say also cpofiovpai pr) yivrjrai. When
the object of the fear is already past or actually present, so that no
desire of preventing a result can be implied, verbs of fearing are still
followed by pr) as before ; but now all analogy to final clauses dis-
appears, and the dependent verb is put in the proper tense of the
Indicative, as in ordinary object clauses after 6Vt and as- (See be-
low, Note 5.)

Note 1. Sometimes, though seldom, pr] takes the Future
Indicative after verbs of fearing, &c. E. g.

Qofiovpai 8Z , pr) rivas r)8ovus rj8ova~is evpr)o-opev e'vavrlas- PLAT.
Phil. 13 A. Qofttpov teal vchukepov, prt ad>a\ets Kfiaouai. Plat.
Pep. V, 451 A. r "

The Future seems to differ from the Subjunctive in these cases,
as in final clauses, only by expressing the result more vividlv and
marking its futurity more strongly. Thus (poftoiiuai pr) evpapep
would not differ from fofiovpai pr) (vpr)o-opev quoted above, ex-
cept in the manner of expression ; just as iav pr) evpcopw would
differ from et pr) €vpr)o-opcv. (See § 44, 1, N. 1.) For the rare use
of the Future Optative after verbs of fearing, &c, see § 26, Note
1 (b).

Note 2. Verbs denoting fear and caution are sometimes
followed by ottos pr), with the Future Indicative or the Sub-
junctive after primary tenses and the Optative after secondary
tenses, like verbs of striving, &c. Many verbs (like 6pS> and
<TKonS>) belong equally well to both classes (§§45, 46). It
will be noticed, that 6W pr) here is exactly equivalent to pr),
so that (pofiovuai onus pr) yeviyafTai (or yevrjTat) means I fear
that it will happen (not, I fear that it will not happen). (See
Note 6, a.) E. g.

Tov 8a.ip.ovos 8f8oix Sir cos pr) revgopat Ka<o8a[povos AltlST. Eq.
112. EvXafiovpfvoL orrcos utj ol^cropai. Plat. Phaed. 91 C. Ae-
8oiku on u>s ur) avayxr) yevrjrai, 1 fear that there may be a necessity.
DEM. Phil. HI, 130, 14. Ov (pofcl, on (os pr, avocriov npaypa
rvyxavns np&TT(ov ; Plat. Euthyphr. 4 E. QvXottov, onus pr, ds
rovvavriov eX6r,s. Xen. Mem. ill, 6, 16. 'H8e(os av (6ptyaipi t6v
Wi " M fpoPoiprjv or: cos pr) or avrov pe rpanoiTO. Xex. Mem

NorE 3. The particle av is never used with pr, and the Sub

§ 4 if 2 Mrj AFTER VERBS OF FEiRING. 83

junctive. It is sometimes joined with an Optative depending upon
fxrj alter verbs of fearing, in which case it always forms an apodosis
with the Optative. Such an Optative with av can of course follow
primary as well as secondary tenses, by § 31, Note 2. (See § 44, 1,
N. 3, Rem.) E. g.

AtSoiKoi yap pi) npco \eyois av tov nodov tov e'£ ifiov, I fear that
you might tell (if you should have an opportunity). Soph. Trach. 631.
(Cf. Philoct. 493.) Ovt€ wpocrdoKia ovdepia f)v fir) av nore oi 7roXe/uo»
en t7rX evcre i av. TllUC. II, 93. 'Etceivo twoai fir) Xiav av tu^u
o~a><ppovio-8 e irjv , lest (in that case) I should be very soon brought to |
my senses. Xen. An. VI, 1, 28.

Note 4. Mr/ with the Subjunctive, and oncos pj with the
Future Indicative (seldom the Subjunctive), are sometimes
used elliptically, depending upon some verb of fear or caution
understood. (See § 45, N. 7, a.) This expresses an appre-
hension or anxiety, sometimes a mere suspicion. It is espe-
cially common in Plato. E. g.

'AXXa fir) ov tovt f) xaXtTrbv, ddvarov (pvytiv, but (I fear) lest this
may not be the difficult thing, to avoid death. Plat. Apol. 39 A. Mij
dypoiKOTtpov fj to d\r)6(s smew, (I fear) lest it may be too rude to
speak the truth. Plat. Gorg. 4G2 E. 'AXXa fir) ovx ourwr i'xn i a\\
avnyKoiov ?/ eldora Tidecrdai tov TiOefievov tu ovofiaTa. Plat. Orat. 436
B. Oifioi TtiXas, 6 Zevs ojrwy fir) fi o^erai. ARIST. Av. 1494.
(This example belongs equally well under § 45, N. 7, a.) "Onus
ovv fir) dnoXei fiao~Tiyovpevos. Xen. Cyr. I, 3, 18. 'AXX' onojs fir)
iv tois foypafprjpaaiv rj tovto. to fir] updcos biavepuv, eVi 8« tois ovofiaaiv
ov, dAX' dvayxaiov r; del 6p8a>s. PLAT. Crat. 430 E.

In Xen. Mem. IV, 2, 12, ^77 ovv, e<pr], ov dvvapat e'yto Ta rrjs
8iKaioo-vvr]s e£r]yr]o-ao-dai; (do you fear) I am not able to explain, Sec?
the Present Indicative belongs under Note 5 (a.) ,

Note 5. Verbs of fearing may refer to objects of fear
which are past or immediately present; so that no desire or
even possibility of preventing the result can be implied. (See
Rem. before Note 1.) Here, therefore, all analogy to final
clauses disappears, and pr] is followed by the present and past
tenses of the Indicative, as on or as would be in indirect
quotations. The following cases occur : —

(a.) M7 with the Present Indicative expresses a fear that
something is now going on. E. g.

'Opatfiev fir) NtKt'ar oi'erai ri \lysw, let us be cautious lest Nicias
i« thinking that he says something. Plat. Lach. 196 C. (Here tho
Subjunctive oujrai would have meant lest Nicias may think, refer-
ring to the future.) Ae'Sot/ca fir) nXrjycov 8tti. Aris". Xub. 193

S4 FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 46

4>o[3eio6t, pfj 8v<TKnka>Tff>6v tl vvv SiaKf ipat f) eV tw irpdaOft
fiico. you are afraid lest I am now in a more peevish state of mind, &c,
(whore the Subjunctive would have referred to the future, lest 1
may be). Plat. Phaed. 84 E. 'Eniaxes, o>s ai> Trpovg(pevvr)o~a) arifiov
pr] tis TToXirav ev rpifico ^anaferai, Kapol pev eX6g (pavXos jos
dovXa yj/oyos- Eur. Phoen. 92. (Here pr) (pavrd^trai means lest any
one is now to be seen; and pr) eX8n, lest any report may come here-
after.) *Ava£, ipoi toi, pi) ti Kal OtrjXaTOv rovpyov rob', r) ^vvvoia
(iovXevti ndXai. Sopii. Ant. 278. (The idea is, my mind has long
been anxious, lesi this is the work of the Gods, eariv being understood
after pr).*) "Opa pr) (Ktlvov KaXvei. Plat. Charm. 163 A. 'AAA.'
tLiropeada, pr] tl Kal KardaxtTov KpvCpr) KaXvffTf i Kapoia Bvpovpivn,
oopovs irapao-TtlxovTfs. Soph. Ant. 1253. (The idea is, we shall
learn the result of our anxiety lest she is concealing, &c.f)

(b.) Mr} with the Perfect Indicative expresses a fear lest
something has already happened. The difference between
this and the Perfect Subjunctive is often very slight, the
latter expressing rather a fear that something may hereafter
prove to have happened. (See examples, § 18, 1.) E. g.

Nvf oe (Pofiovpeda, pi) dpcportpaiv apa fj paprf]KQpev , but now we
fear lest we have missed both at once. THUC. Ill, 53. (The Perfect
Subjunctive here would strictly have meant lest it may hereafter
■prove that we have missed.) Ae'Soira pr) \e\r)8apev [7-171/ elpr)vni>]
(7rl 7roAAai ciyovre s, I fear that ive have been unconsciously enjoying a
peace borrowed at high interest. Dem. F. L. 372, 1. Qofiovpai pi)
A oyois ncri \^ev8((Tiv e vrerv \r) Kape v . P.LAT. Lys. 218 D.

* That this is the correct explanation of the passage, Soph. Ant. 278,
and that we need not emend it with Nauck, so as to read rovpyov rod' j/,
^vwoia ftovXevei ndXat, is evident from the Seholion on the passage :
'H (Tvvvoia pot fBovXeverai Kal oierai pi) Kal 6ei)\ardv ecrri to npdypa.
So perhaps we should read pi) eXavvti in Dem. Phil. Ill, 124, 25.

t In this passage, if anywhere, it would seem necessary to admit the
interrogative force usually ascribed to pr), which would make it equivalent to
ft ov, whether not. But lure, as in ihe other passages quoted, it is plain
that the dependent clause after pi) expresses the object of an apprehension.
To establish a purely interrogative force in pf], it would seem necessary to
find examples in which pr) not only follows a verb like oiSu, but also is
followed by a clause in which no object of apprehension is contained
(Such a sentence would be elaopeoda pr) 01 (piXoi £a>aiv, we shall learn
whether our friends are not living; but no such example can be found, ai
least in any classic writer. The Greeks would have said flooptoQa el ov
(dyaiv or el faaiv.) The use of «, whether, after verbs of fearing (Note 6,
c), usually adduced as an argument to prove the interrogative force of pr).
rather seems to show that, when the Greeks wished to introduce an indi
reet question after verbs o' fearing, they had recourse to et, as in othel
cases.

8 46 J Mtj with iue indicative. 85

(c.) M?;' can be used with the Imperfect or the Aorist In-
dicative, to express fear le~t something happened in past time.
This can be expressed only in this way, as the Subjunctive
and Optative would refer to (relatively) future time. E. g.

Aei'Sco fir) 8r) navTa 8ea pvptprea elirev, I fear that all that the
Goddess said was true. Od. V, 300. 'AXX' opa p.rj iraifav eXeyei/,
but be very careful lest he was speaking in jest. Plat. Theaet. 145 B.
(This implies a fear that he was speaking in jest.)

Note 6. (a.) As verbs of fearing, &c, imply thought,
they sometimes take the construction of ordinary indirect dis-
course. Here los (and even ottws), that, may be used to intro-
duce the object of the fear, thus taking the place of pfj in the
common construction. ("Ort seems to be used only in the case
mentioned in Note 7.) E. g.

Avdpos p.f] <po/3ov cos aTTopr}o-(is d|i'ou, do not fear that you will
le at a loss. Xen. Cyr. V, 2, 12. (Here the direct discourse would
be a7ropr]<Ta>, I shall be at a loss.) M17 heio-nre as ox>x rjSecos Kadev-
8 17 o- ere, do not fear that you will not sleep sweetly. Id. VI, 2, 30.
(Here prj 011% would be the ordinary expression.) Mf] rptans, owcos
ae rts airoo-nao-e t (Bia, lest any one shall tear you away by force.
EcR. Heracl. 248. Mr) (potBev pr)re epe, cos (T(o neipcopfvos Xe'yoo
\6yov roVSe, p.r)re yvva'ma tt)v ipr)v, p,r) ri rot if- avTrjs yevrjTat
8\d@os, do not fear either that I am saying this to try you (cos Xt'yo)),
or lest any harm shall come (p.}) yevnrai). Hdt. I, 9. (Here the two
constructions after <pof3ev make the principle especially clear.)

In all these cases pr) or oncos pr) would have been more regular,
and exactly equivalent to as and oncos here. (See Note 2.)

(b.) We also find the Future Infinitive after verbs of
fearing, standing in indirect discourse to represent a Future
Indicative of the direct discourse. (See § 73, 1, Rem.)

E. g.

Ov <po(3ovp,eda e\ao Tcoaecrdat, we are not afraid that we shall
be defeated^ Tiiuc. V, 105. (Here p,i\ wit'h the Subjunctive or the
Future Indicative would have been more regular.)

(c.) Verbs of fearing may also be followed by an indirect
question introduced by el, whether, or by some other inter-
rogative particle. "Oircos used interrogatively in such sentences
is not to be confouc ied with onus in its use explained above
(a). E.g.

Oi Se'Soiva fi $Dumros £f), aXX' et tt)s noXecos TfdvrjKe to tovs
a&iKovvras puaelv ku'i rifuapeitrdai, I have no fear (on the question)

*G FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES. [§ 46

whether Philip is alive ; but I have fear (about this), whether the cus-
tom of the city to hate and punish evil-doers is extinct. Dem. F. L.
434, 6. 4>o'j3os ft fioi (ao-iv ovs e'ycb 6e\u. Eur. Heracl. 791. *e-
povcrd o~ot veovs tJkco Xo'yous, Cpojdcp pev e'l tls beanoToiv aladrjaerai,
through fear whether any one will perceive it (where pi) alo-drjatrai or
aiadnrai might have been used, meaning lest any one shall perceive
it). Eur. Androm. 61. ^oj3ovuTai ottoi nore n pofirjcrfrat i) tov
drbpbs bvvapis- Xen. Hell. VI, 1, 14. (The direct question would
be woi. 7rpo[3r]<TeTai ;) Trjv Oebv §' ojrojf \d6ca biboiKa, I am in fear
{about the question) how I shall escape the Goddess. Eur. Iph. T
995. (The direct question was ttu>s Xddco; § 88.)

Note 7. Verbs of fearing may be followed by oti, because, and
an ordinary causal sentence with the Indicative (§ 81). E. g.

OiiK a£iov bid tovto (poftelo'dai robs 7ro\epiovs. otl 7ToXXoi rvy-
\dvovcriv ovres, to fear them, because they happen to be many.
ISOC. Archid. p. 128 C. § 60. &o@ovpevr)s rrjs p-nrpos, otl to
X^piou €Tvvv6dv€To voawbes eivai. ISOC. Aegin. p. 388 D. § 22.
On be no\Xa>v a p\ o v o~ t , pi) (po(irj6rjTe, dWd ttoXv pdWnv 8id tovto
dappfire, do not be afraid because they rule many, &c. Xen. Hell.
Ill, 5, 10. (Mij apxovaiv qbofSelcrdai. would mean to fear lest they
rule.) Qofiovpevos to KaeaOai koi to Tep.veadai, otl d\ytiv6v, fearing
them, on the ground that they are painful. Plat. Gorg. 479 A. (But
for the analogy of the preceding examples, we might be inclined to
translate this fearing that they are painful, like prj d\yeivov.) 'E<po-
/3ftro, oti dcpdrjoeadai epeWe to. ftaa'tXeia olKobopeiv dp)(6pevos, he
was afraid, because he was about to be seen beginning to build the
palace. Xen. Cyr. Ill, 1, 1.

Note 8. (a.) Verbs of fearing may be followed by an Infinitive
{[without prj), which is sometimes preceded by the article. Such an
Infinitive denotes the direct object of the fear, as in English, / fear
to go. E. g.

&ofiovpai ovv SieXey^e iv o~e, pfj viroXdftps, k. t. X., I am afraid to
refute you, lest you may suspect, &c. Plat. Gorg. 457 E. (Here
both constructions occur.) <J>o/3>jo-«Tai dbiKelv, he ivill be afraid to
do wrong. Xen. Cyr. VIII, 7, 15. (But (pofirjo-eTai prj abiKJ), he
will fear that he may do wrong.) IltqbpiKa 'Epivvv reXeo-ai ra»
icarapaj, / shudder at the idea of the Fury fulfilling the curses. Aesch.
Sept. 720. (But in 790, rpea> pr/ reXeo-77 means I tremble lest sht
may fulfil them.) See also Xen. An. I, 3, 17. To dirodvfjo-Ktiw
ovbe\s (poj3e'iTai, to be dbiKclv qbofte'iTai. Plat. Gorg. 522 E.

See § 92, 1, Remark 2, and Note 3.

(b.) Verbs of caution may be followed by an Infinitive (with or
without pf)), which is sometimes preceded by the article; the In-
finitive having the same meaning as a clause with pf) and the Sub-
junctive or Optative. E. g.

Ilwt 01/K ai-iav avTov ye (pvXa^atr&u tolovtou yeveadai ; why

§ 47, 2.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 87

ought he not to guard against becoming such a man himself? Xen.
Mem I, 5, 3. (Here ytvto-dai is equivalent to txr) yevrjrai j *uAar-
To/xevos to \v7T7?<rai nva, taking care to offend no one. Dem. Cor.
313, 6. &v\do-cr(iv nrjSeva wepaiovadat. Thuc. VII, 17. <f>iAa7-rd-
ixevov Ka\ 7rpoopoifj.fi/oi' /ir) Karaio- x.vv ai ravrrjv. [Dem.] Aristoo-. I
773, 1. (For fij see § 1)5, 2, N. 1.) In Thuc. VII, 77, 5, we find
the Infinitive with mare after <pvkao~oa>.

(c.) KlvSwos «m, the principal expression denoting danger which
takes fit) and a finite verb, is quite as regularly followed by the
Infinitive (without fir]). E. g.

Oil o-fUKp6s klvSvvos eo-Tiv e^anarndrivai, there is no little danger
of their being deceived. Plat. Crat. 436 R.

Kii>8wcva> is regularly followed by the Infinitive, by § 92, 1.

Remark. All the Infinitives referred to in Note 8 belong regu-
larly under the rule, § .°2, 1. For the article before such Infinitives
see § 92, 1, Note 3.

SECTION II.

Conditional Sentences.

§ 47. 1. In conditional sentences the clause con-
taining the condition is called the protasis, and that
containing the conclusion is called the apodosis. The
protasis is regularly introduced by the particle el, if,
negatively ei /xr].

Note. At is the Doric form for et. It is sometimes used
also in Epic poetry, but only when «' immediately follows.

2. The adverb av (Epic «e or Kev, Doric *a) is regu-
larly joined with et in the protasis, when the verb is in
the Subjunctive (§ 50, 1) ; el with av (a) forming the
compound eav, av (a), or r\v. See § 38, 1.) The simple
ei is used in the protasis with the Indicative and the
Optative.

The same adverb av is regularly nsed in the apodosis
with the Optative (§ 50, 2), and also with the secondary

88 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 47, 2

tenses of the Indicative in the construction explained in
§ 49, 2. (See § 37, 3, and § 39.)

3. The negative particle of the protasis is regularly
/i?7, that of the apodosis is ov.

Note. "When the last rule is violated, and oi> is found in a
protasis, it is always closely connected with a particular word
(generally the verb), with which it forms a single negative,
expression; so that its negative force does not (like that of fuj)
affect the protasis as a whole. E. g.

UdvTcos brjTTOv (ovra>s eyet), eav re av kcli Avvtos ov (pr/re (av re
<^re, if you deny it, as well as if you admit it. Plat. Apol. 25 B.
(Here idv pr) (pyre would mean unless you admit it.) El pev oi
7roXXoi rprav, KaB" eKaarov av nepi tovtcov TjKoverc, if there were only
a few, &c. Lys. Agorat. p. 135; § 62. Cf. p. 137; § 76. (Here
ov ttoXXoi are used together in the sense of oXi'yot.) Ta>i>Se pev ovbiv
lo~ov iariv, e't'ye d(p' T)pa>v ye raw eV peo~q> ov8(ls ovStTrore ap§6-
rat, there is no fairness in this, if (it is the plan, that) no one is ever
to begin with us. Xen. Cyr. II, 2, 3.

The following example makes the difference between ov and pr\
particularly clear, ov affecting merely the verb, and pf) affecting
the whole (including the oli) : et pf/ Hpo^tvov ov% virfde £avro ,
to-ui6r]o-av av, if it had not been that they did not receive Proxenus, they
would have been saved. Dem. F. L. 364, 11.

When several clauses, introduced by \uv and Se, depend
upon a single tl which precedes them all, ov is used even more
frequently than pf] ; as such clauses have their own construc-
tion independently of the et, which merely introduces each of
them ax a whole, not affecting the construction of particular
words. E. g.

Aeivov av tin, et ot pev eicelvcov ^vppaxoi eVt Sovke'ia rfj avrwv (p€-
povres ovk dnzpovo~iv, rjpeis 6* en) rw avrol cru^eaflcu ovk <ipa dmravrj'
aoptv, it would be a hard thing, if (it is a fact that) their allies will not
refuse, &c, while we will not contribute. Thuc. I, 121. Err" ovk
alaxpbv, et to pev 'ApyetW nXfjOos ovk efpofirjdrj ttjv AaKfbaipovtuv
dpxn^ vpels Se jSdpfiapov (poftrjaeo-de ; is it not then disgraceful, if (it
is true, that) the Argive people did not fear, &c. Dem. llhod. 197, 9.

Classification of Conditional Sentences.

§ 48. The supposition contained in a protasis may
be either particular or general. A particular supposi-

§ 48.J CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS. 89

tion refers to a definite act or a definite series of acts.
A general supposition reiers to any one of a class of
acts, which may occur (or may have occurred) on any
one of a series of possible occasions, — if having the
force of if ever or whenever.

The following examples contain particular suppositions : —
If he is (now) able to do this, he is doing it, el tovto iroielv
bvvarai, nniel. If he was able to do this, he did it, el tovto iroi-
elv eSwaro, eiroiet. If he (shall) be able to do this, he will do it,
eav tovto iroielv 8iivT]Tai, noirjaei. If he should be able to do this,
he would do it, el tovto iroielv 8vv.uto, iroioir] av.

The following contain general suppositions: —
If he is (ever) able to do this, he ( always) does it, eav tovto
iroielv SvvrjTai, noiel. If any one (ever) wishes to go, it is (always)
permitted, eav tis ISovXtjt.u livai, e£eo~riv. If he was (ever) able to
do this, he (always) did it. el tovto iroielv bvvairo, eiroiei. If any
one (ever) wished to go, it was (always) permitted, e'l tis /3ou-
Aotro levat, etjrjv. If any one shall (ever) wish to go, it will (al-
ways) be permitted, eav tis Uvai (3ov\r]Tai, del i^earai. If any
one should (ever) wish to go, it would (always) be permitted, el
Tis levai (3ov\oito, del av e£elr).

Although this distinction can logically apply to all suppositions
(present, past, and future), yet the Greek distinguishes the two
classes in construction only in present and past conditions, even
here excepting those which imply non-fulfilment of the condition.
Therefore all the classes under I., except A. 1, include both partic-
ular and general suppositions.

I. Excluding from A. 1 the past and present general sup-
positions, which have a peculiar construction, we have four
forms of ordinary conditional sentences: —

A. If the protasis refers to the present or the past, the
question as to the fulfilment of the condition which it ex-
presses has been already decided (in point of fact) either
affirmatively or negatively ; the speaker, however, either may
or may not wish to imply by his form of statement how that
question has been decided. He will, therefore, state such a
condition in one of two ways : —

90 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. p 13.

1. If he refers to a present or past condition, expressing; no
opinion as to its fulfilment, he may say if he is doing this, el
tovto irpdo-aei, — if he was doing it, d 'inpaao-ev, — if he did it,
el ewpa^ev, — if he has done it, el niirpaxev, — if he had already
done it, el enenpdxei. The apodosis, expressing the result of
the fulfilment of such a condition, may refer to the present, the
past, or the future. Thus we may say,

Et npcncrei tovto, koXois i\et, if he is doing this, it is well.

El npaa-o-ei tovto, ijp.dprr]Kev, if he is doing this, he has erred.

Ei npao-o-ei tovto, Ka\a>s eijei, if he is doing this, it will be well.

El enpa^e tovto, KaXas e^ft (eiYev, eo-^v, or e£et), if he did this, it
is (toas or will be) well ; and so with the other tenses in the protasis.
(See § 49, 1.)

So in Latin, Si hocfacit, bene est; Si hoc fecit, bene erit.

2. If, on the other hand, he refers to a present or past con-
dition, wishing to imply that it is not or was not fulfilled, he
may say if he were now doing this, el tovto 'iirpao-o-ev ; or if he
had done this (although he did not do it), el enpagev. The
apodosis here denotes what would be or would have been the
result, if the false supposition in the protasis were a valid one.
The apodosis here contains the adverb av, which distinguishes
it from those forms of apodosis belonging under 1 in which past
tenses are used. Thus we may say,

Et eTrpao-cre tovto, /caXeS? av el)(ev, if he were (now) doing this, it
would be tvell. El enpa.o~o~e tovto, KaXas av el^ev may also mean if he
had been doing this, it would have been well.

Et €7rpa£e tovto, K.a\d>s av eo-^ev (or av et^ev), if he had done this,
it would have been well (or it would now be well). On the other
hand, el i'irpa£e tovto, Ka\as eo~xev (without av) would mean if he
did this, it was well. (See § 49, 2.)

In Latin : Si hoc faceret, bene esset ; Si hoc fecisset, bene fuisset.

Remark 1. The Greek has thus a special form (A, 2) implying
that a condition is not or was not fulfilled, and another (A, 1) im-
plying nothing whatever as to its fulfilment. There is no special
form implying that the condition is or was fulfilled, — a force often
erroneously assigned to the form A, 1. If this is to be expressed at
all, it must be done by the context, not by the form of the verb.

B. If the protasis refers to the future, the question as to
the fulfilment of the condition is, of course, at present unde*
cided, and a speaker may state such a condition in either of
two ways (B, 1 and 2), which differ more in the form of state-
ment than in then meaning: —

§ 48.] CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS. 91

1. He may say if he shall do this, e'av updo-ay toCtu (or,
still more vividly, el npd£et tovto), making a distinct supposi-
tion of* a future case. The natural apodosis to such a protasis
expresses what will be the result, if the condition shall be ful-
filled. We may therefore say,

Eai/ n pdaay tovto, koXws et;ei, if he do this, it will be well ; or el
rrpd^et tovto, <aXms e£ei, if he shall do this, it ivill be well. (See § 50,
1.) In Latin : Si hoc faciet (more frequently si hoc fecerit), bene
erit ; rarely si hoc facial, bene erit.

2. He may also say, if he should do this, el npdaaoi tovto,
still supposing a case in the future, but less distinctly and vividly
than before. The natural apodosis to such a protasis is a simi-
lar indefinite expression, it would be. We can therefore say,

Ei npdaaoi tovto, koXws av e^04' if he should do this, it would be
well. (See § 50, 2.) In Latin: Si hoc facial, bene sit.

Remark 2. The two forms of protasis which the Greek ex-
presses by the Subjunctive (edv Trpdaay tovto) and the Optative (el
irpdaaoi tovto) have only one equivalent form in Latin ; si hoc
facial meaning if he shall do this (e'dv tovto updo-ay), as well as if he
should do this (el tovto npdaaoi). (See § 50, 2, Rem. b ) But in
the former sense the Latin commonly employs the Future Indica-
tive, si hoc faciei (corresponding to el tovto npd^ei, if he shall do
this), or the Future Perfect, si hoc fecerit, leaving the form si hoc
facial to represent the Greek el tovto npdaaoi, if he should do this.

II. In general suppositions the two following classes are
distinguished in construction from the corresponding particular
suppositions (I. A, 1).

A. First, when the apodosis contains a verb of present

time, expressing a customary or repeated action or a general

truth, and the protasis refers to indefinite time represented in

English as present. We may then say,

'Edi/ tis tovto npdaay, koXuis e'^ei, if any one (ever) does this, it is
(ir, all such cases) well. 'Edv tovto noieiv hvvnTai, 7roiet, if he is
(ever) able to this, he (in all such cases) does it. 'Edv tjs tovtov irijj,
dnoQv^anei, if any one (ever) drinks of this, he dies.

B. Secondly, when the apodosis expresses a customary or
repeated action or a general truth in pa<t time, and the pro-
tasis refers to indefinite past time. We may then say,

Ei' tis tovto npdaaoi, ku'Acos etxe"' if anV one (ever) did this, it was
(in all such cases) well. Ei tovto noieiv divairo, enoiei, if he was
(ever) able to do this, he (always) did it. Ei tis tovtov nioi, dnedvrr
<TKev, if any one (ever) drank of this, he died.

92 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 48.

Remark 1. General suppositions referring to the future (see
p. 89), as well as those referring to the present or past with non-
fulfilment of the condition implied, not being distinguished by their
form from particular suppositions, are included under the rules of
§ 49, 2 and § 50, 1 and 2.

Remark 2. Although the Latin occasionally agrees with the
Greek in the construction of general conditional sentences, — using
si faciat and si facer et like eav npaacrr] and ft irpaaam above, - — it
commonly agrees with the English in not distinguishing this class
from I, A, 1.

I. Four Forms of Ordinary Conditional Sentences.

A. Present and Past Conditions.

§ 49. 1. (Particular Suppositions.') When the
protasis in a particular supposition simply, states a
present or a past condition, implying nothing; as to the
truth of the supposition, the verb is in one of the present
ox" past tenses of the Indicative, after et. Any tense of
the Indicative may he med in the apodosis, to express
the result of the fulfilment of the condition. E. g.

Ei (ftp6vTT)o-e, (cat ffarpayfftv, if it thundered, it also lightened. (This
does not imply that the speaker has any knowledge or opinion on
the question whether it actually thundered.) Ei 8' ovtoo tovto
ecrrli/, efxdi p.eXXei (fyLXov eivai. II. I, 564. See I, 178. El tots
Kovpos '4 a, vvv avre fie yrjpas ond£ei. II. IV, 321. Et Beoi rt
fipdjcrtf alaxpov, ovk elcrlv deol. Eur. Beller. Fr. 294. Ei e-yco
4?al8pov dyvoco, Kai iuavTov inikiXrjO'p.ai' dXXa yap ov&erepd e'oTi
tovtoov, if I do not know Phaedrus, I have forgotten myself; but
neither of these is the case. Plat. Phaedr. 228 A. (See § 48, I, A,
Rem. 1.) Ei fieu (' AaKX^mos) dtov rj v. ovk r\v aicr^poKepSijr, ei S'
alaxpoKep8rjs, ovk ?j v 8(ov. Plat. Rep. Ill, 408 C. Ei /J.r]8ti> tovtcov
tt e ir o i r] k a s , Ti (po^o-rj ;

Note 1. The Imperative, the Subjunctive in exhortations
or prohibitions, or the Optative in wishes, may stand in the
apodosis. E. g.

'AXX* ei o~ok€? trot, ore'i^e, if thou art resolved, go. Soph. Ant.
98. (Here iav 8okJ] would refer to the future, while ei 8ok('i is
strictly present in its time. Cf. Antig. 76.) 'AXX' tl boKt~i,ir\ie>-
uev, 6pp.do-dco Ta^vs. Soph. Phil. 526. 'AXX' el nov tttu>x^v y*
6eoi not ipwves elaiv, ' hvTivoov npb ydpoio TeXos OavaToio Kiyr'y.
Od. XVII, 4 75. 'aXX' ei boKel v t to.v9' , vnai tis dpflvXas Xvoi
Ta^w, out if this pleases you, let some one quickly loose the shoes, &c

§ id, 2.] PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS. 93

AESCH. Agam. 944. KaKiar dno\o l pn v, SavBiav el fxfj ypi\dj.
Arist. Ran. 579. In the last three examples the Optative ex-
presses a wish (§ 82), and must not be confounded with the Opta-
tive with av in apodosis (§ 50, 2).

Remark. A protasis of this class may also be followed by an
apodosis in the Optative with ay, as el tovt dXrjdes eariv, iy8*W a v
dne\8oip.i, if this is true, I should be glad to depart. But such an
apodosis always implies a protasis with an Optative, which is inde-
pendent of the one expressed ; so that these examples belong under
the mixed constructions of § 54. See § 54, 1 (a).

Note 2. Under this head belong all cases of particular supposi-
tions referring to the present or the past in which the non-fulfilment
of the condition is not implied. We must be careful not to include
in this class the general suppositions explained in § 51 ; which require
a Subjunctive or Optative in the protasis, although we commonly
translate them in English by the simple Indicative.

Note 3. The condition may still be present, even when
the Future Indicative stands in the protasis, if that tense ex-
presses merely a present intention or necessity that something
shall happen hereafter ; as when el tovto noi^o-ei means if he is
(now) about to do this, and not (as it does in an ordinaiy
future condition) if he shall do this. E. g.

Aipe irkr]KTpov, el ^iu^fi, raise your spur, if you are going to fight.
Arist. Av. 761. (El pa^ei in protasis commonly means if you shall
fight, being equivalent to eav pdx;]) Ol els ttjv j3ao-i\iKTju Tiyy^v
Trai8ev6pevoi . . . . ti 8ia<pepuvai runs e'£ dvdyKTjs KaKonaBovvToov, e\
ye n e ivijcr ov cr i Kai 8 t\l/ 17 cr over t Kai p ty a> a ov a t km. a y p v it v n ■
a ova 1 <a\ ra'AXa iravra po^di) crovo- iv eKovres ; how do they differ,
&c, if they are to suffer hunger, thirst, &c. (i. e. if it is necessary thai
they should suffer) ? Xex. Mem. II, 1,17. *H vvv eya pev ovk dvi^p,
avrr] 8 dvrjO, el tout dvarel rf]8e Keio-erat Kparn, if this is to pass
unpunished. Soph. Ant. 484. So ei Tr6Xep.os 8ap.a, 11,1, 61; and
el 8ia^\r]8f]0-opai, Eur. Hec. 863.

This use of the Future must be carefully distinguished from that
found in future conditions, where it is equivalent to the Subjunctive.
(§ 50, 1, Note 1). The periphrastic form of the Future with peXXco
and the Infinitive (§ 25, 2) is more common in this construction.
Here the tense of peXXa> (as in el peXXovcrt tovto noielv for el tovto
noirjcrovaiv) shows that the condition is really present and not future
So with the Latin periphrastic Future, si hoc faclurus esc.

2. In sentences containing present or past conditions,
when it is implied that the condition of the protasis is
not or was not fulfilled, and when the apodosis expresses

94 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. j_§ -19, 2

what would be (or would have been) the result if that
condition were (or had been) fulfilled, the secondary
tenses of the Indicative are used in both protasis and
apodosis. The apodosis regularly contains the adverb
av.

The Imperfect here refers to present time or to a con-
tinued or repeated action in past time, the Aorist to an
action simply occurring in past time, and the (rare)
Pluperfect to an action completed in past or present
time. E. g.

a-

Ei tovto e7rpa<r ere, Ka\a>s av n'^fi', if he were (now) doing this,
it would be well (implying that he is not doing it). This may also
mean if he had been doing this, it would have been well (implying that
he was not doing it). The context must, decide, in each case, to
which time the Imperfect refers. Ei tovto eirpa£e, koXoos av
eo-\ev , if he had done this, it would haoe been well (implying that he
did not do it.) Ei tovto eireTi pd^e i , KaAa>s av el\ev, \t he had
finished doing this (now, or at any past time), it woidd be well (imply-
ing either he has not, or he had not finished it).

TavTa ovk av edvvavTO noulv, el pf] <a\ 8iaiTj] perpia e'^pavro,
they would not be able to do this, if they did not lead an abstemious
life. Xkn. Cyr. I, 2, 16. Ho\v av davpao-rorepov fjv, el e'r i prnvT o ,
it would be much more wonderful, if they were honored. Plat. Rep. VI,
489 B. Ov% ovto) 8 av rrpo&vpcos eVi tov nokepov vpds trape /caX ov v,
(I pf] ttjv elpijvrjv ea>pa>v alo^pdv taofievnv, I should not exhort you, did
I not see (as I do), &c. Isoc. Archid. p. 134 A. § 87. Atyovo-i
iruvra fj e^et • kgi toi ei pf] tTvy^avfv avTols (TTKrTrjpT) ivovoa, ovk
av olol t rjo-av tovto -rroifjo-eiv, they tell everything as it is: and yet if
knowledge did not chance to be in them, they could not do this. Plat.
Phaed. 73 A. ~Ev luff oti ei' tl epov e'* 17 Sou, ov8(v6s av ovrat pe
dnooTepelv e'cpuXdrrov &>s a^uapaTos Kai Tipfjs, if yoK cared for me
at all, you would take care, &c. Xen. Cyr. V, 5, 34. Ei pf] air'kno-Tos
re e'as xpr/pdrcov /cat alaxpoKfpdfjS, ovk av veKpasv 8i)Kas dvemyes-
IIdt. I, 187. (This implies anXro-Tos el, thou art insatiable, and
dvttoyes, thou didst open.)

Ovk av vr)cra>v e'/cparet, el pf) ti ko\ vovtikov el\ev, he would not
have been master of the islands, if he had riot had also some naval for,:c
(implying vovtikov el^ev and vf)au>v eKpdrei, he had a navy, and he
was master of the islands). Thuc. I, 9. (TaCra) ovk avirpoe\eyev,
tl pf) eV io-Tevev dXrjdevo-eiv, he would not have declared these things
(referring to several), had he not been confident that he should speak
the truth. Xen\ Mem. I, 1, 5. El rjo-av avdpes dya0o\, cor av (pj)s,
ovk av ivoTe Tavra enaax ov , if they had been good men, as you say,
they would never have suffered these things (referring to several cases)
Plat. Gorg. 516 E.

§ 49, 2.] SECONDARY TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 95

Kai vv k (Ti nXe'avat AvKiav KTavt Slos 'Oftvcrcrevs, ft prj ap' o£v
von ere fityas KopvdaioXos "E/crcop, i. e. Ulysses would hare killed still
more, had not Hector perceived him, II. V. 670. Km iv Kev fjui ndvra
KareCpd iTO koi peve' dvdpcov. el pi] tis pe 8ea>v 6Xo(pv paro Kai p.'
eVaoxTfi;. 0(1. IV, 363. Kai laoy; av bid ravr dnedavov, el pr/
T] dpxi) did raxcuv KareXvdr] . PLAT. Apol. 32 D. Ti ttot civ
enaOov vtt avra>v, el nXeia) xpovov e n er pair e v 6n v ; . . . . el
icaTeXe [(pOwv ptv eviavcrios, e£ ern 8i n pocr en e r poireidnv vt'
avratv, oiifi av ra pi<pd ravra nap avrav dneXajiov. Dem. A ph. I,
833, 12—19. Ei Toivvv 6 <&iXnnros Tore ravrnv ecr^e ttjv yva>pvv,
nvSev av wv vvvl nenoirjKev enpa^ev, ox/be roaavrnv e ktt) o~aro
bvvapiv. Dem. Phil, I, 41, IS. (See below, Remark b; and § 42,

Ei pi) vpe'is rjXdere, e wopevopeda av rrri fiacriXea, if you had
not come, ice should (now) be on our way to the King. (Aor. and Im-
port.) Xex. An. II, 1, 4. Et yap e< rov TrapeXnXvBoros XP^V0V r(*
beovra oiiroi o~vvef3o i/X e vera v, oibev av ipds vvv e be t (SovXeveoSat,
if they had given the necessary advice in time past, there would now be
no need of your deliberating. Dem. Phil. I, 40, 9. ToOto el dne-
Kpiva), iKavas av rjbr] napd crov ttjv oaiornra e pe padrj xn , if you had
answered this, I should have already learned, &c. (implying dXX' 011
nep,d6nK.a, but now I have not learned). Plat. Euthyph. 14 C.
Aoirrov b' av tj v rjplv en irep\ ttjs noXecos biaXex^fai ttjs rjperepas, el
prj nporepa raw aXXcov rrjv elprjvnv enenoirjTo. (This implies dXXd tj)v
elpfjvnv nporepa neir 01 nra t .) ISOC. Phil. p. 93 C. § 56. Tatv dbiKn-
pdrmv av e pe pwnro ra>v avrov, e'l ti Trep\ epoxi y'ey pacbev. Dem.
Cor. 251, 28.

Different tenses can of course be used in the protasis and apodosis,
if the sense requires it. See especially the example quoted above
from Dem. Phil. I, p. 40, 9, and the preceding one.

This construction is the exact equivalent of the Latin Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive in protasis and apodosis. With regard
to the tenses, the Latin Imperfect Subjunctive represents the Greek
Imperfect Indicative referring to present time ; while the Latin
Pluperfect Subjunctive represents the Greek Aorist and Pluperfect
Indicative, and also the Imperfect referring to past time.

Remark, (a.) It will be seen by the examples, that this
construction usually implies, not merely that the condition of
the protasis is not (or was not) fulfilled, but also that the
action of the apodosis does not (or did not) take place : thus,
«t Torero tnpagev, e'eradn av, if he had done this, he would have
been saved, implies not merely that he did not do this, but also
that he was not saved. The denial of the apodosis is not, how-
ever, inferred as a necessary consequence from the denial of the
protasis, which would often be an illogical inference ; for (iu
the example above) the person might have been saved in somo

96 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 49, 2.

other way, even if he did not do the thing referred to. Indeed,
where it is not implied that the action of the apodosis depends
as a result upon that of the protasis as its condition, the action
of the apodosis is not denied : this happens when the protasis
expresses a concession, introduced by ko\ el, even if although,
or oi/S" el, not even if; as Ka\ el tovto eirpa^ev, eaa>6r] av, even if he
had done this, he would have been saved, where it may be
implied that he was saved.

(b.) In this form of conditional sentence, therefore, the verb
of the protasis always (and the verb of the apodosis generally)
implies its opposite ; the Imperfect always implying a Present
or Imperfect, the Aorist an Aorist, and the Pluperfect usually
a Perfect or Pluperfect. Thus el enpao-o-e, when it means if he
were doing, implies dXX* ov npdcro-ei, but really he is not doing ;
when it means if he had been doing, it implies dXX' ovk enpaaae,
but really he was not doing : el pfj enpagev, if he had not done,
implies dXX' eirpn£ev, but really he did do : el eTrenonjKet tovto, if
he had already done this, implies either dXX' ov nenoirjKev, but
really he has not done it, or dXX' ovk eneiioirJKei, but really he had
not done it, according to the context. This principle will
show which tense of the Indicative is to be used in any given
case, in writing Greek.

The Aorist, however, is very often used here, as elsewhere,
where the Pluperfect would express the time intended more
exactly (§ 19, N. 4) ; as in the sentence above quoted, oi8ev
av 2>v vvv\ nenoirjKev eirpa^ev, where the Perfect neno'irjKev shows
that the Pluperfect might have been used for Zwpatjev.

Note 1. In Homer, the Imperfect in this construction
refers to past time, and is to be translated by our Pluperfect.
E.g.

*Evda Ke \oiyos er]V Ka\ dpfjxava epyn yivovro, el pf] up' b£v var^cre
narijp dvbpav Te 8ea>v re, then there would hace been, &c. 11. \ 111,
130. Et yap ey£> Ta8e jjSe' e'vi (ppecrl 7revKa\ip7]<Ti.v, ovk av vire£t<pvye
Srvyor vdaros alita peedpa, if I had known, &C. Id. 366.

Note 2. Sometimes av is omitted in the apodosis, although
the non-fulfilment of the condition is still implied. This merely
gives a more emphatic expression, as when we say it had been
for it would have been. The av can be omitted only when the

§ 49, 2. I APODOSIS WITHOUT *AN. 97

context shows conclusively that the construction is not that of
§49,1. E.g.

Nat pa Aia rj cr^vvo p.nv pevroi, el vrro iro\epiov ye ovto? e^r/na-
tt]8t]v, yes, by Zeus, I were indeed ashamed, if I had been deceived,
&c. Xen. An. VII, 6, 21. KaX6i> tjv aura), el ovk eyewi/di] 6 av-
Bpamos eKelvos, it had been good for that man, if he had not been born.
Matth. Evang. XXVI, 24.

Compare Verg. Aen. XI, 115: Aequius huic Turnum fuerat se
opponere inorti, it had been more just, &c, where fuisset would have
been the regular form

Note 3. (a.) An apodosis without av, but implying the
non-fulfilment of a condition, is often formed by an Infinitive
depending on the Imperfect of a verb denoting necessity, obli-
gation, propriety, possibility, or the like. This combination
merely expresses in other words what might have been ex-
pressed by the verb of the Infinitive in a past tense of the
Indicative with av. Thus ebei <re toZtov (pi\e"tv means you ought
to love him (or ought to have loved him), — implying, but you do
not love him (or did not love him), — and is equivalent to
roiirov av icpiXeis, et to. beovra enoieis, you would love him (or
would have loved him), if you did (or had done) what you
ought. So cIkos t)v ere tovto noirja-ai means you would properly
have done this (but you did not), being equivalent to eiKoVws
tovt av inoinaas.

This construction occurs chiefly after the impersonal Imper-
fects XP*IV or *XP*lvi «8«, e£rjv, evrjv, Trpoo-fJKev, eiKOS tjv, ijpfxoTTtv
(decebat), r)v or imr)pxev (it was possible), and tjv with nouns and
adjectives expressing necessity, propriety, &c. So when tjv is
used with the verbal in -rkov (equivalent to eSei with the Infini-
tive). When the Present Infinitive is used, the construction
refers to present time or to continued or repeated action in past
time ; when the Aorist Infinitive is used, it refers to a single or
rromentary action in past time. E. g.

Et en Tjpeas povvovs e<TTpaTrj\dree 6 Hepcrr) j, XP1V uvtov ttovtcov
T»v a\\a>v dnexopevov ovtu> lev at hti n)v fjpeTe'prjv' ku\ av eSijXov
rdcri <as em 2<v6as eXaivei, if the Persian were making his expedition
against us alone, he ought, letting alone all others, to be marching
directly into our country ; and then he would show that he fas march-
ing against Scythians. Hdt. IV, 118. Here xp*Iv t*vaL means ue
would be marching into our country (like rjiev av), if he were doing what
would be expected under such circumstances, — implying that this
5 o

98 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 49, 2.

condition is not fulfilled. (See below, Rem. 1.) 'Expyv pev ovt
Kai 8 i Katov rjv tuvs tov o~re(pavov olopevovs 8eiv Xafieiv airovs dtjiovs
f 7r i8e i Kvvva i tovtov, prj e'pe kcikcos X eye iv eiretdf] be tovto imptv~
re? etce'ivo iroiovcriv, k.t.X., i. e. those who think the;/ ought to receive the
crown would (if they did what is right and just) be showing that they
deserve it themselves, and not be abusing me ; but since now they have
neglected the former and do the latter, &c. Dem. Cor. Trier. 1228,
28. Et yap vn 686vros roi eme reXevrr]creiv fie, XP*IV &*l °'6 ^0Leeiv
ra TToieeis ' vvv 8e vir alxpr/s, f he had said that I ivas to be killed by
a tooth, then you would have to do as you now do. Hdt. I, 39. (See
below, Rem. 1.) "E8ei pev rovs Xeyovras anavras prjTe irpbs e^dpav
»i oiela-Qai \6yitv prj8eva prjre npbs X^P'"' *• e* ^ie speakers ought not
to say a word out of regard either to enmity or to favor (and yet they
do so). Dem. Chers. 90, 1. Horepov avrrjv e'xprjv ev rfj QerTaXtov
Kai AoXottcov rd^ei trvyKaraKTao-Bai $iX'nrivtd tt)V tu>v 'EXXtjvcov
apXTjv; i. e. ought she to have helped Philip acquire his dominion over
the Greeks (sc. as she would have done by your policy) ? Dem. Cor.
246, 1. 'Epe el pev iv c'iXXats rialv ripe'pais f]8tKnae tc tovtcov 18icott]v
ovra, I8'ia Kai 8ikt)v rrpoariKev uvtco 8 i86vat, i. e. he would properly
have given satisfaction by a private suit (as if he had said npoarjKovrcos
181a 8iKrjv av i8i8ov). Dem. Mid. 525, 3. Kai noXXoU 8d£a>, cos olos
t covaeacoc^eivei rjdeXov dvaXiaKeiv xpipara, dpeXtjo-ai, i. e. where-
as I might have saved you, if I had been willing to spend money, &c
rLAT. Crit. 44 C. Ov yap ivrjv prj TvapaxpovcrdivTuiv iipcov peivat
QiXimrcp, for Philip could not have remained, unless you had been
deceived (implying he did remain). Dem. F. L. 3 79. 2. (See § 52,
1.) Kai pAXiara eiKos r\v vpas tt poo pa a 8 at avra Kai pr) paXaKccs,
cotnrep vvv, ^vppaxeiv. Thuc. VI, 78. (The orator adds, dXX
ovd vpeis vvv ye' rrco ovd' ol aXXui eirl ravra toppnaBe.) El pev tolwv
ataxpov ri epeXXov epydcreaBai, Bdvarov dvr aiirov tt poat per e o v rj v
(i. e. npoaipela-dai e'8ei). Xen. Mem. II, 7, 10. So in Latin : Quem
patris loco, si ulla in te pietas esset, colere debebas. Cic. Phil. II, 38.

(b.) The Aorist and Imperfect of 6(pel\u> (ScpiXXco) are
sometimes used with the Infinitive like xPVv> ^et' &c-? as m H<

I, 3o3, Ttpyv irep pot ocpeWev 'OXvpnios iyyvaXi^ai Zeiis v^iftpe-
perrjs • viv 8' ov8e pe tvtBov ericrev, i. e. Zeus ought to have secured
me honor ; but now he has not honored me even a little. From
this comes the common use of this form in expressions of a
wish ; as axpeXe Kvpos £rjv, would that Cyrus were living (lit.
Cyrus ought to be living). This is an apodosis, implying as a
protasis if it were possible, or something similar. See § 83, 2.

(c.) Similar to this is the occasional use of e^ovXopnv (with-
out av) to express what some one wishes were now true (but
which is not true). E. g.

1Lj3ovX6pr)v pev ovv Kai tjjv #ouXr)i/ kcu to.s inKXnaias 6pd»t

§ 49, 2.] AFODOSIS WITHOUT *AN. 99

StotKeladai Kcii tovs vounv\ Icrxveiv, would that both the Senate
and L.e assemblies were rightly managed, and that the laws were in
force (implying the opposite of op6ax biouce'iaOai and ur^vW).
This is analogous to dcpeXev elvai, icould that it were, and edet thai,
it ought to be (but is not). Aeschin. Cor. § 2. 'Ef3ov\6fiT]v pev
ovk ipl^etv ivdabe, would that I were not contending here (as I am).
Akist. Ran. S66. See below, Rem. 2.

(d.) K.iv8weva> is used with the Infinitive, as a periphrasis
for the verb of the Infinitive with av. E. g.

H n6\is e Kiv8vvev ere ivacra Siacpdaprjvai, el clveuos eneye*
vero, the city was in danger of being utterly destroyed, if a wind had
arisen. Thuc. Ill, 74. Ei pfj eijecpvyouev els AeXcpovs, eicivbvvev-
trapev diroXecr 6ai, if ice had not escaped to Delphi, zee were in
danger of perishing (or there was danger that tee should perish)
Aeschin. Cor. § 123. (If the meaning had been that there would
have been danger, we should have had eKivbvvevo-auev av.)

(e.) The Imperfect of pek\ca with the Infinitive may express
a past intention or expectation which was not realized, and so
take the place of the verb of the Infinitive with av. E. g.

'H uaXa 8rj 'Ayap-euvovos (pdiaeadai kcikov oltov epeWov, el
urj . . . eemes, i. e. / should have perished like A. (lit. I ivas to have
perished), if thou hadst not spoken. Od. XIII, 3X3. MeWev uev
TTore oikos 6'5 aepvetos kol dfj.vfj.cov e fifxevai • vvv S' erepcos efioKovro
6eoi. Od. I, 232. Ov avaTparevcjeiv epeWuv, they would not have
joined him (in that case). Dem. F. L. 391, 11. So in Latin:
Hoc facturi erant, nisi venisset, they were to have done this, had he
not come.

So e'epr/v in Od. IV, 171 : kcu fiiv e<pnv eXdovra (pt\rj<repev e^o^ov
aWcov, el vc7hv vocttov ebcoKev (Zeus), i. e. / intended to love him (and
should, have done so) had Zeus granted us a return.

Remark 1. It will be seen that in the construction of Note 3 a
protasis is implied with the apodosis ; edet at tovtov cpikrfirai being
strictly equivalent to tovtov av ecplXno-as el ra dtovra enoirjcTas, you
would have loved him. if you had done what you ought, or simply you
shoidd have loved him. (See § 52, 1.) This form therefore com-
monly stands as an apodosis with no other protasis expressed ; and
even if another is added (as in the first example under a), the im-
plied protasis always remains the prominent one. Especially, tliia
implied protasis expresses the condition, the non-fulfilment of which
prevents the action of the apodosis from taking place. The whole
expression \pr\v tovto irotelv, &c. thus becomes the apodosis to the
expressed protasis, if one is added. In the third example under a
(Hot. I, 39), the real apodosis may be you would then do from
necessity what you noio do (implying that now you do not do it from
necessity) ; or we may perhaps explain xp*lv better by Note 2.

In this construction the Infinitive (of course modified by the lead-
ing verb, as shown above) contains the main idea of the apodosis.

100 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. |_§ 49, 2

When the main idea is contained in the verb of necessity, &c., so
that the non-fulfilment of the condition of the protasis affects this
rather than the infinitive, we have xp*Iv «"i e8« &»■> TrpoarjKev av, &c,
forming an ordinary apodosis (§ 49, 2). Thus el to Seovra ovtoi
crvve^ovkevoiv, ovbev av vpas vvv ebei (5ov\evecr6ai, if these men haa
given the necessary advice, there would now be no need of your deiiber^
ating, implies but now there is need of your deliberating. Occasion-
ally both constructions can be used to express essentially the same
apodosis: thus in Lys. in Erat. § 32, we find, XPV" °"e' aei ^nep r)<r6a
Xpncrros, tols peWovcriv dSi/caij cnvoOaveicrdai prjvvrrjv yei> e'adai, if
you had been an honest man, you ought to have become an informer in
behalf of those who were about to suffer death unjustly (implying but.
you did not do so, ovk eyivov pnvvrrjs) ; but in § 48, referring to the
same thing, the orator says, einep rjv avr)p dyados, exprjv av Trpcorov
pev pr] napavopois apxeiv, eireiTa rfj (BovXrj prjvvrrjv ye veer 6 at, k.t. X.,
if he had been a good man, it would have been his duty, &c. (implying
ovk exprjv). The latter construction, however, is very rare where
the former would be admissible.

The distinction between e8ei ere tovtov cpike'iv and e'Sei av ere tovtov
cpiXeiv would be expressed in Latin by te oportebat hunc amare and
te oporleret hunc amare.

Remark 2. The greatest difficulty in understanding the forma
explained in Note 3 is caused by the defect in the English verb
ought, which makes it impossible to translate them accurately.
Thus we translate ovk e'8ei ere tovto noir/crai (or noieiv), non oportuit
te hoc facere, you ought not to have done this, expressing the past
time by the tense of the Infinitive, which we should express by the
past tense of ought if there were one. ( You oughted not to do this
would represent the Greek and Latin idiom. The vulgar ex-
pression you had n't ought comes very near it.)

A further trouble appears when such phrases as ovk ?§« ere tovto
iroielv refer to present time, meaning you ought not to be doing this
{as you are) . The Imperfect here refers to present time, as it does
in the ordinary construction of § 49, 2. The Latin has the same
idiom, non oportebat te hoc facere. But in English, owing to the
defect in the verb ought, we are obliged to use the simple present;
so that we cannot distinguish in translation between e'8ei oe epiXelv,
oportebat te amare, and 8el ere (piXeiv, oportet te amare, — both be-
ing expressed by you ought to love, although the former implies but
you do not love, while the latter implies no condition.

It needs perhaps to be added, that the tenses of the infinitive here
express no time of themselves, but are used in the ordinary con-
structions of § 15, 1, and § 23, 1. The equivalent Latin forms
(Jacere representing both noieiv and noirjcrai) wdl make this clear.

Remark 3. It must not be understood that the Imperfects exprjv
eSet, &c. with the Infinitive are always used in the construction of
Note 3. Thus edei 8e pevetv, in Dem. F. L. 379, 14, means simplj
but he wis obliged to remain {and did remain).

§49,2.] SECOND A.RT TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 101

Note 4. (a.) In n. XXlrf, 526 Ke is usei with a secondary
tense of the Indicative in protasis, apparently addiug nothing to the
sense. (See § 50, 2. N. 2, b.)

Ei 5e k en irptTepa yevero Bpopos dp<poTepoicriv,
Tw «ei/ ^ii> napeXaacf ov8' dp(pt)pioTov i'drjKev.

(b.) When dv stands in the protasis with a secondary tense of the
Indicative in Attic Greek, the expression is so obviously an apodosis
at the same time, as to present no difficulty. "Av can never coa-
lesce with el to form idv in these sentences, as it always belong to
the verb. E. g.

Ei toiwv rovTO l&xvpov rj v dv tovtco TeKpfjpiov, Kupot yeveirdcoTfKp.fi- i I i
pwv, KTfrX., If thenTMs IbbvMrKam^'em a strong -proof for him (sc. had i
he had it to bring forward), so let it be also a proof fur me, &c. Dem. ' ' *
Timoth. 1201, 19. (This sentence properly belongs to the class of
§ 49, 1 ; for the protasis really is if it is true that this would have been
a proof to which the apodosis in the Imperati ve corresponds.) In
Dem. Cor. 260, 2, Kai t'is oxik av dneKreive pe 8iKaia>s, e'i ri tiov imap-
\ovTiov t?i ndXei KaXaiv Xoyco povov Karaicr)(vveiv ene %e i pi) a' dv; —
if we retain the final dv (which is strongly supported by Mss. autho-
rity), we must translate el enexeipncr' dv if it is true that I would
(under any circumstances) have undertaken, &c, and not simply if I
had undertaken (el eirexetpqcra). See § 50, 2, Note 2, a; and §
63, 2.

Note 5. In some cases the Aorist is found in the apodosis refer-
ring to present time, after a protasis in the Imperfect; it always
denotes, however, a momentary or sudden occurrence, or some other
idea which the Imperfect would not express so well. E. g.

Ei pev ovv av pe -ypcoras ti tcov vvv 8rj, enrov dv, k.t.X., if ih'.n
you were asking me any one of the questions before us, I should (at
once) say, &c. Plat. Euthyph. 12 D. Ei eireOvpeis tuvtijs (rrjs
OTKptay), Ka\ eyio are ervyxavov dvepcoTcov, k.t.X., tl dv poi ane-
KpLvco; if you desired this kind of wisdom, and I happened to be asking
you, &fc, what should you reply? [Plat.] Theag. 123 B. See also
Plat. Prot. 318 A; Gorg. 447 D; Symp. 199 D.

Note 6. (a.) In a very few passages in Homer we find the Op-
tative with Ke in the apodosis referring to the past, where we should
expect a secondary tense of the Indicative. E. g.

Kai w k e v evd' diroXoiTO ava£ dvftpcov Aiveias, ft pi) dp' d£l> v6t)(T€ ,
Aios OvyaTnp 'Acppodirn, Aeneas would have perished, had not Aphrodite
quickly perceived him. E. V, 311. Kai vv Kev evG dir6XoiTo"Api)s
aTos noXepoio, el pi) 'Hepi/3oi'a 'Eppea etjrjyyeiXev. II. V, 388. (In
both these cases dncoXeTo would be the regular form, in Homeric as
well as in Attic Greek.) So H. XVII, 70, evda Ke (pepoi is used
for evda k e<pepev, he would have carried. So II. V, 85, Tv8ei8r)v 8'
ovk dv yvoins irorepoiari peTeirj, you would not have known to which
army he belonged: for the dependent Optative, see § 34, 3, Note.

102 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 49, 2.

(J.) The Imperfect Indicative is not used in Homer in the con-
struction of § 49, 2 referring to present time. (See Note 1.) In a
few cases where the Attic Greek would use that form, we find the
present Optative in Homer. E. g.

Et )j.ev ris tov oveipov 'A^aiwi/ aXXos evia~ire , ■tyevbos Kev (^at/iev,
Kal vocr<f)t£oifie6a fidWov, i. e. if any other one had told it, we
should call it a falsehood, and should rather turn away from it. H. II,
80. In II. XXIII, 274, we find the Optative in both protasis and
apodosis, where the Attic Greek would use the Imperfect Indica-
tive: el vvv eVt aXkco ddXevoi fiev , rj r av e-yw ra irpara Aa/3coi>
KXto-iijvbe (pepolfirjv, i. e. if we were now contending in honor of
another (than Patroclus), I shoidd take the first prize and bear it to my
tent. The present Optative in Homer is used also in its regular
sense, referring to the Future (See § 50, 2.) The constructions
included in this note seem to be a relic of an ancient use of the
Optative in conditional sentences like that of the secondary tenses
of the Latin Subjunctive. (See Appendix I.) For the similar
Homeric use of the Present Optative in expressions of a wish, see
§ 82, Rem. 2.

B. Future Conditions.

§ 50, 1. When a supposed future case is stated dis-
tinctly and vividly (as in English, if I shall go), the
protasis takes the /Subjunctive with eav, av (a), or r)v
(Epic et K€ or at /ce).

The apodosis denotes what will be the result, if the
condition of the Protasis shall be fulfilled. It therefore
takes the Future Indicative, or some other future form,
like the Imperative. E. g.

'Eav ri Xti/3o), Saxrco <roi, if I (shall) receive anything, I will give it to
you. 'Eclf ri \a(3rjs, Bos fioi, if you receive anything, give it to me. Ei be
Kei> &>s ep£ns Kai toi ive idavrai 'Amatol, yvu)o-rj eneiB1 os &' rjyep.6i>Q)V
kokos os re w Aac3i>, but if you shall do thus and the Achaeans obey
you, you will then learn both which of the leaders and which of the
soldiers is bad. II. II, 3G4. (For el ice see § 47, 2.) At k avrbv
yvu>u> vr]fxepTta itdvr eveirovra, eaaco fiiv ^kaivdv re ^iravd re, elp-ara

^\d. Od. XVII, 549% So at *e bixn, II. I, 128. (See §47, 1,
Note.) Et \xiv Kev MeviXaov 'AXe^avbpos Karaite <f>vji , aiiros eneid'

EXevrjv f^erco Kal Krrjpara irdvra, rj/xels 8' ev vrjecrai ve a>p.e 8 a now
Tondpoio-LV ft be k 'AXe^avbpov Krelvj] i-av6os MeveXaos, Tpaas eireiff
'EXevqv Kal Krfjpara navr dnobovvai. II. Ill, 281. Here e^era
vewp.eBa (Subj. in exhortation), and dnobovvai (Infin. for Imjiera
tive) ai'e in the apodosis. Ai' *a rijvos eXrj Kepaov rpdyov, alya to
\ayp-jj. Theoc. I, 4. *Av be rts dvOio-rqrai., <rvv vplv neipa*

50, l.J SUBJUNCTIVE AND FUTURE INDICATIVE. 103

o Spe6a xeipoilc'&u, if any one shall stand opposed to us, toe will try
to overcome him. Xen. An. VII, 3, 11. *Av pi) vvv edeXapev eni
noXepelv avTco, evdaS" iVcos a pay Kaad rj a 6 pe 8 a tovto woielv, if we
shall not new be trilling to fight him there, we shall perhaps be forced to
do so here. Dem. Phil. I, 54, 20. Here vvv refers to time immedi-
ately following the present : if Dem. had meant if we are not noio
willing, he would have said el prj vvv e deXopev (§ 49, 1). *Hi>
yap ravra KaXas 6 pi a cope 8 a, apeivov /3 ovXev a- 6 pe 6 a Ka\ irep\ tcjv
aXXcov. IsOC. Pac. p. 162 D. § 18. Hv 8e tt)i> elprjvrjv noin a a> pe 8 a ,
Ka\ toiovtovs r/pas avrovs n a pa a xa> pev , pera noXXiji da<PaXeias rijv
nokiv oIktj a o pev. lb. p. 163 A. § 20. 'Eav ovv 'in s vvv, jrore eaei
o'Uoi; Xen. Cyr. V, 3, 27. Kal XP^ avroZy, eav 8 e n ti, and use
them, if there shall be any need. lb. V, 4, 30. *Hv pev noXepov
alprjo'8e, prjKen fjKere 8evpo twev unXav, el aaicppoveire ' rjv 8e
elprjvrjs hox.r)Te be'iaBai, avev onXcov rJKere' a>? 8e KaXa>s e^ei rii
iiperepa, rjv (piXot yevnerQi, epo\ peXijaei. lb. Ill, 2, 13. 'Eav
yap tL ae (pavco zukov 7re7roiT)Ka>s, 6poXoyu> d8i<eiv eav pevroi pn8ev
(paivcopai KaKov 7renoir]Ka>s prjbe fiovXr]8e\s. ov Kal cru av 6 poXoyn-
tre is prjbev in epov d8iKeia8ai ; lb. V, 5, 13. (Here 6poXoya> must
be understood as referring to the future, like opoXoyrjaeis. § 10, 1,
N. 7.) 'Edv pi) rj ol (piX6o~o<poi fiao-tXevaoiaiv r) ot fiaaiXrjs (piXo-
o~o<prj crcoo" tv , ovk ecrri kukojv iravXa rals noXeaiv, unless either the
philosophers shod become kings or the kings philosophers, there is no
escape from troubles for states. Plat. Rep. V, 473 D. Ai'Swo-' exoii/
Kreiveiv eavrbv, ijv rd8e i\r ev o~ drj Xeyaiv. Soph. Phil. 1342. 'Edl»
prj rjplv fie fiorj 6t] tores do- iv, ov 8ei Ijpds avro'is fiorjSelv, if they
shall not have assisted us, there is no need of our assisting them. "Hv
ere tov Xoittov nor d(peXa> pat xpovov, Kamar dnoXo i pnv , I. e.
may I perish, if I ever take them away. Arist. Ran. 586. (See §34, 1.)

Remark 1. It will be seen that the apodosis in this construction
may take any form of the verb that refers to the future, — the
Future Indicative, the Imperative, the Subjunctive in exhortations
and prohibitions, the Infinitive in any future sense, or the Optative
in wishes. It may also contain a Present Indicative including a
reference to the future (like x?h or $(~0 or a Present merely used
emphatically for the Future, like SpoXoya above quoted from Xen.
Cyr. V, 5. 13, or naiXd ea-ri from Plat. Rep. 473 D.

Remark 2. The English (especially the colloquial language)
seldom expresses the important distinction between this form of
protasis and that of § 49, 1. Thus modern usage allows us to use
the inexact expression if he wishes, not merely for et fiovXerai (if he
now wishes), but alse for eav fiovXrjrai (if he shall wish). The sense,
however, generally makes the distinction clear.

Note 1. The Future Indicative with « is very often used
in the protasis in the same sense as the Subjunctive with edv,
sometimes alternating with it in the same sentence. This ia

104 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 50, 1

n-crely a more vivid form of expression than the Subjunctive,
both corresponding to the English if I shall do this, &c. E. g.

Ei yap AxiXXevs oios eiii Tpcofccri ^o^fiTai, ovbe fitvvvd' e^ovcri
77oScoKea n.rj\eia>va, if Achilles shall fight, &c. II. XX, 26. Ei be av y
es TruXepov it a>X r/aeat, ij re a" ot'w piyr)o~eiv noXepov ye, /cat el v' e're-
pu>6t TTvOrjai.. II. V, 350. Ei be npbs tovtoio-l eTi t eX evTrja e i tov
(iiov ev, ovtos eiceivos tov <tv (rjTels oXj3ios KeK\r)o6ai a^ios eo~n. Hdt.
I, 32. (bee Rem. 1.) El pr) Kad e £e is yKaxraav, earai o~oi koku.
Eur. Aeg. Frag. 5. Et be pr) tovt embe l£e i, nccs XP*) tovtjj rfj
irpoKkrjo-ei iroocrexeiv vpds tov vovv ; Dem. Aph. I. 829, 28. El fi' vpels
aXXo ti yvuxr eo~Qe , o pr) yevoiro, Tiva o'leo-Qe ai)Tr)v \}svxr)v ei;eiv ;
Dem. Aph. II, 842, 15. (Referring to the same thing, p. 834, 24,
Demosthenes had said av yap dnotyvyr) pe ovtos, o pr) yevoiTo, tt)v
eTrafteXtav ofpXijaco.) tiv edeXatpev dnodvr)o~Keiv inep tuv btKalcov,
evboKiprjo~opev' el be (po j3t] a 6 pe 6 a tovs Kivbvvovs, els iroXXas Tapa-
Xas Ka.Tao-TT)o-opev vpds avrovs. Isoc. Archid. p. 138 A. § 107.

This use of the Future must not be confounded with its less com-
mon use in present conditions, § 49, 1, N. 3, where it is not equiva-
lent to the Subjunctive.

Note 2. In the Homeric language the following peculiari-
ties appear in this construction : —

(a.) The Subjunctive with « is sometimes used in the

apodosis instead of the Future Indicative, thus making the

apodosis correspond in form to the protasis. E. g.

El be Ke pr) bayo-iv, e'yw be <ev alrbs eXcapai, and if he do not
give her up, I will take her myself. H. I, 324. (Compare I, 137.)
This gives a form of sentence analogous to that in which the
Optative is used in both protasis and apodosis. See § 87, Note.
(For the use of be in apodosis, see below, § 57.)

(b.) "Hi* is the only contraction of el av found in Homer.
The most common Homeric form is, however, et Ke (sometimes
« be Ke). Et av is rarely found, as II. Ill, 288.

(c.) Ei Ke or at Ke is sometimes found even with the Future
Indicative in Homer. E. jj.

Ai' k e v avev epeOe v .... 'iXt'ou tt e(p ibrj v eT ai , ovb' eSeXrjcre
(Kntpo-ai, 'Io-tco tovto. II. XV, 213.

For Ke (and even av) with the Future in apodosis, see § 37, 2.

(d.) The simple el (without av or Ke) is often used with the
Subjunctive in Homer, apparently in the same sense as el Ke or
the Attic iav. E. <;.

Et o av tis pa ij] at 8eutv eVt olvorrt novra), rXiycro/tat ev crTrjOeaai*
f\<x>v TaXmrevOea dvpov. Od. V, 221. Ovbe noXivbe epxoptu, el /xij
vov rt irepicppwv Tln^eXSiTeia eXOepev OTpvvrjo-iv . Od. XlV, 372.

§ .r>0, 2.] OPTATIVE Iff PROTASIS AND APOD08IS. 105

Note 3. (a.) The Homeric use of the simple el with the
Subjunctive continues in lyric poetry, and is found in the
chorus of the Attic drama, and even in some passages of tho
ordinary dialogue. E. g.

El yap 6avj]s /cat reXevrija-ar dcpfjs. 8oph. Aj. 496. Avo~TaXaim
rap eyco, eiaov o-Teprjda. SOPH. O. C. 1442. Et pr\ o~' eK(bdya>
fK TrjaSe rrjs yrjs, oibenoTe ^toxropai. AniST. Eq. 698. Ei' tis eu
jsdcrx&jy \6yov i&Xbv aKOvar). PlND. Tsth. IV, 16.

(b.) In Attic prose, this construction is extremely rare, and its
existence is denied by many high authorities ; if we follow the Mas.,
however, we must admit it in a few passages, as Thuc. VI, 21 : Ow
vavTiKTjs arpands povov Set, dXXct <a\ ire£bv noXvv ^vpnXeiv, dXXas re
Ka\ el ^vcttcoo-iv ai noXeis (po{3r]del<Tai- (Here only a few of the
worst Mss. read fjv for et.)

Note 4. For the change from the Subjunctive to the Optative
after secondary tenses in indirect discourse, sec- § 74, 1.

2. "When a supposed future case is stated less dis-
tinctly and vividly than it would be stated by the Sub-
junctive (as in English, if I should #0), the protasis
takes the Optative with ei.

The apodosis here denotes what ivould be the result if
the condition of the protasis should be fulfilled, and
takes the Optative with av. E. g.

Et eXdot, iravr av tSot, if he should go, he would see all. Ei a
uvrcos ede'Xoi (piXteiv KrjdoiTO re 8vpa, tw Ktv tis Keivoov ye (cat
e'(cXeXdc9(>tro ydpoio, if she should be willing thus to love yen, &c
Od. Ill, 223. TH/cei> yrjdrjaai Tlpiapos TJpidpoio re naides. dXXoi
re Tpates ptya Kev Ke \a p oiaro dvpco, ei cr<paH!> rdde ndvra nv 6 oi'aro
papvapevouv. II. I, 255. (See § 47, 2.) 'AXX' et pot ti iriOoio, to
Kev noXv Kep8iov ei'j/. H. VH, 28. E'itjs (poprjTos ovk av, el Trpdo~-
crois /caXcoy. Aesch. Prom. 979. Ei 8e tis tovs KparovvTas tov
irkrjdovs Ztv dperj)v tv por pe t\re lev , dpfporepovs av 6vr]0~eie. ISOC.
ad Nicocl. p. 16 C. § 8. Et tis t£>v crot o~vvovtu>v enapd e irj wotelv
a o~v rvyxdveis evXoyav, nas ovk av ddXiuraros s i'lj; Isoc. Busir. p.
230 C. § 47. Ov8e yap av MfjdoKos pe 6 ftacriXevs e naivo it) , ei
e'£eXa vvoipi tovs evepyeras. Xen. An. VII, 7, 11. Et pi) cWaroi.
inr avTcov itr) o-(i>8r)vai, airoKTe ivai p' av epavrdv. Dem. Eubul
1820, 25. OuS' ei ndvres eX8oiev Hipaai, irX!]8ei ye ov-^ virepfia'
Xoiped' av tovs noX.eplovs. Xen. Cyr. H, 1, 8. Ov noXXr) a*
aXoyla et;;, ei ^ojSoiro tov davarov 6 toiovtos ; Plat. Phaed. 68
B. Oticor 8' ai/Tos, ei (p8oyyr)v Xdfioi, cra(peo-TaT av Xe'£eiev
AESCH. Ag. 37. IIoos ovv ovk av olKTpdraTa ndvTwv e'yo) ivenovdmt
5*

106 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. |_"§ 50, 2.

tlt]v, el ep.e yf/-T]<pi&aivTo elvcu £evov ; how then should I not ham
suffered (lit. be in the condition of having suffered) the most pitiable of
all things, if they should vote me a foreigner? Dem. Eubul. 1312, 17.
(Sec § 18, 1, and examples of the Perfect Optative there quoted.)

Remark, (a.) This form of the conditional sentence must be
especially distinguished from that of § 49, 2 ; the more so, as we often
translate both eln av and r)v av by the same English expression, it
would be; although the latter implies that the supposition of the
protasis is a false one, while the former implies no opinion of the
speaker as to the truth of the supposition.

(b.) On the other hand, the distinction beween this form and that
of § 50, 1 is less marked, and it is often of slight importance which
of the two is used in a particular case. Thus it is often nearly in-
different in English whether we say if toe shall go (or if we go), it
will be well, or if we should go, it would be well ; in Greek, the former
is edv eX6a>p.ev, koXws e£ei, and the latter is el eXdoipev, icaXcos av
*\oi. (See § 48, I, B, Rein. 2.) In writing Greek, this distinction
can generally be made, by first observing the form of the apodosis
in English ; if that is expressed by would, it should be translated by
the Greek Optative with av ; if it is expressed by will, it should be
translated by the Future Indicative. (Other forms of the apodosis,
as the Imperative, will present no difficulty.) The form to be used
in the protasis will then appear from the rules for dependence of
Moods (S 32 and § 34) ; the Optative will require another Optative
with el in the dependent protasis (i. e. the form of § 50, 2, el eX6ot-
pev, Kakcbs av e\ot) ; while the future Indicative or any other
primary form will require a Subjunctive with edv, or a Future Indi-
cative with el (i. e. the form of § 50, 1, edv eX6 apev, /caXws e£«,
or el eXeva 6p.e da, /caXcor e£ei).

In indirect discourse we often find an Optative in protasis, which
merely represents the same tense of the Subjunctive or Indicative
in the direct discourse. See § 69, 1 ; § 74, 1 ; and § 77.

Note 1 . Cases of the omission of av in an apodosis of this class
are rare ; they occur chiefly in Homer, less frequently in the Attic
poets (even then chiefly in questions, and after such expressions as
ovk ead' onus), and seldom or never in Attic prose where the text
is beyond suspicion on other grounds. E. g.

'O Be xePfJia$t0V Xa/3e X€lPl Ti/8«'8iJSj peya epyov, b ov 8vo y avbpe
(pepoiev, which two men could not lift (if they should try). 11. V,
303. (See § 52, 2.) Teav, Zev, tvvaaiv ris dv8pa>v vnepftao-ia Kara-
cr^oi; Soph. Ant. 605. 'AXX' vntproXpov dvdpbs (ppovrjpa ris
Xeyoi; Aesch. Choeph. 594. "Ear ovv orrats "AXktjo-tis e's yr]pas
poXoi; EUR. Ale. 52. Ovk eo-ff ottois \e£aifll ra \^ev8rj KaXd.
AeSCH. Ag. 620. Ovk eartv 6Va> p.ei£ova poipav veipaip' ij aoi.
Ae.SCH. Prom. 292. lias ovv rdd', cos ei7roi tis, e^rjpdpraves ; i. e.
as one might fay. Eur. Andr. 929. "Qo-rrep einoi tis tottos, as one
would say rot ot. (?) Arist. Av. 180.

/\«t/?t/C' s ^ 0 uJJjK^ /^v~c ^c^*- • /^/-^
§ 51.] "an in protasis. 107

Note 2. (a.) The adverb av is sometimes used with the Opta-
tive in the protasi;, but only when the protasis is itself at the same
time an apodosis, with another protasis expressed or implied. This
is, of course, no exception to the general rule (§ 39) ; and it is to be
noticed that the dv in this case always belongs strictly to the verb,
and never joins the ft to form idv. E. g.

Ovtoi navreXcos, ovd el pi) won] a a it' av tovto, tvKaTcKppovrjTov \ 1
eaTtv, it is not wholly to be despised, even if you would not do this (if
an opportunity should occur). Dem. Phil. I, 44, 30. Kai eya>, e'tVep /C/
aXXaj to) dvdpconcov n e 16 o i prj v av, Kai aol neiOopai., if 1 would trust
any other man {if he should give me his word), I trust you. Plat.
Prot. 329 B. Ei' ye ur]8e buuXov aKparrj devalued' av, nde ovk
d£iov avrov ye (pvXd^aadai toiovtov yevtcrdai ; if we would not take
even a slave who was intemperate (sc. if one should be offered), &c.
Xen. Mem. I, 5, 3. (Such conditional sentences as the three pre-
ceding belong properly under § 49, 1. Compare the last example

f under § 54, Rem.) See § 49, 2, N. 4, b.

< So occasionally in Homer; as 11. V, 273, ei tovtio <e Xdfioipev ,

dpoipedd K.e kX^os ea6X6v, if we could {in any case) obtain these, we vl
should gain great glory ; and II. I, 60, Ei Kev 6dvar6v ye (pvyoipev, if \ M
we would escape death (where et ddvarov cpvyoipev would mean if we \>'
shoutctever escape death).

(b.) Commonly, however, when et Ke occurs in Homer, Kf belongs Wi

to the et, and no force of an apodosis is perceptible. Here, as in jfl

final clauses (§ 44, 1, N. 3, a), the <e adds nothing to the sense that [(''
can be expressed in English. E. g.

ILcos av eyco 8eoipi per ddavdroio-i deoiaiv, et Kev Aprjs oi'^otTO
Xpeoi Kai Seapov dXv£as. Od. VIII, 352. Tcov Kev toi xapi°~MT0 111
naTijp dnepeiaC anoiva, e'L Kev epe £a>bv it eirv 6 otr' eiri vrjvalv \l\
'AX™S>v. 11. VI, 49. I1

But if the Ke is separated from the et (except by pe'v, 8e, re, yap, <,
&c), or if the sense shows clearly that it belongs to the verb, it is 1
the sign of an apodosis, as in the Homeric examples under (a). V
See § 49, 2, N. 4, a.

Note 3. It follows from § 26, that the Future Optative cannot
be used in protasis or apodosis, except in indii-ect discourse to rep-
-esent a Future Indicative of the direct discourse.

Note 4. For a rare Homeric use of the Optative for the Imper-
fect or Aorist Indicative, see § 49, 2, N. 6.

II. Present and Past General Suppositions.

§51. A present or past supposition is said to be
general, when tire protasis refers indefinitely to any one
of a series or class of acts, and not to a definite act or

'V ft-** JrL, <U*A*GZk- (^ Cf^^ StLU\, ^

103 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 51.

a definite series of acts. The apodosis must express a
customary or repeated action or a general truth.

Here the protasis takes the Subjunctive with eav
after primary tenses, and the Optative with et after
secondary tenses. The apodosis may take the Present
or Imperfect Indicative, or any other form which im-
plies repetition. E. g.

"Hv noTf 8acrp6s"iicT)Tai, froi. to yepas nokii pei£ov (sc. Itrriv), if
ever a division comes, your prize is always much greater. H. I, 1*56.
*Hv eyyiis ZXdn Bavaxos, ov8e\s j3ovXerm 6vr)(TKfiv, if (or when) death
comes near, no one is (ever) willing to die. Eur. Ale 671. "Anas
Xoyos, av airfi to. npdypaTa, parawv rt (pa'iverai Ka\ Kfvov, all speech,
if deeds are wanting, appeals mere emptiness and vanity. Dem. 01.
II, 21, 20. AiareXei piawu, ovk i\v tis n avTov ddiKrj, dXX' <ay riva
inronTevo-T] fieXriova eavrov thai, he continues to hate, not if any
one wrongs lam, but if he ever suspects that any one is better than him-
self. Xen. Cyr. V, 4, 35. EuXujSoO ras Sia/3oXas, kclv ^evfieis matv,
beware of slanders, even when they are false. Isoc. Demon, p. 5
C. §17.

Ei fie' tivcls 8opv$ovpivovs ato-QoiTO, to aaiov tovtov aiconav
KaTCLO-fitvvvvai ttju Tapaxnv eVeiparo, whenever he saw any making a
disturbance, he always tried, &c. Xen. Cyr. V, 3, 55. Ovk dweXd-
jrero en avTov, ei pi] ti dvayKaiov tin, he never left him, unless ^ there
was some necessity for it. XeST Mem. IV, 2, 40. Ei tis dvTeino.,
(vdxis TcdvT)Kei, if any one refused, he was immediately put to death.
THUC. VIII, 66. *Hi> rots pev oepdaXpois t7riKovpi]pa ttjs ^iows, ei tis
piXav ti e)(a>v npo twp 6<p8aXpa>u tt opj voito, to>v fie nodciv et tis
kiiiqito. Xen. An. IV. 5, 13. ^ftXA' ei: ti firjjj) efioifxtv, iQTpvvev
(pepeiu. EUR. Ale. 755. 'Ejreifii] fie eifiof avTov Ta\io-Ta, o-vXXa/Sovres
ayovatu avTiKpvs <u( dnoKTeuovvrts, ovntp /cat roiis ciXXovs dneafpaTTov,
ei TivaXy<TTr)v rj tcciKoiipyov o-vXXd(ioiev, i. e. where they had been
in the habit of killing any others whom they took. Lys. Agor. p.
137, § 78.

The Optative in these examples, referring to past time, must
be especially distinguished from the Optative in ordinary protasis
(§ 50, 2), referring to the future. Ei and lav in this construction are
almost equivalent to ore or otov (which are the more common ex-
pressions), and the protasis has precisely the same construction as
the relative sentences of § 62.

The Present and Aorist Subjunctive and Optative here do not
~s |f-> differ except as explained in Reimirk before § 12.

Vv7 Remark. The gnomic Aorist, and the other gnomic and

<r^ iterative tenses of § 30, can be used in the apodosis of these
general propositions. The gnomic Aorist, as usual, is ccn*
/\r° sidered a primary tense (§ 32, 2). E.g.

'by

§ 51.] GENERAL SUPPOSITIONS 109

*Hi> <r <p a\ <5 <r i v , dtrre\nio~avres nXXa enXr} pa> v av rr\v xpeiav,
if they fail, they always supply the deficiency, &c. Thuc. I, 70. *H»
hi ris TovTcov ri irapafiaivT) , fypiav aureus eni 8 e a av, they
(always) impose a penalty upon every one who transgresses. Xen.
Cyr. I, 2, 2. Ei rives iftoiev irn rovs o-(perepovs eTTiKparovvras,
dveddpo-T]o-av av, whenever any saw their friends in any way
victorious, they would be encouraged (i. e. they were encouraged in all
such cases). Thuc. VII, 71. (See § 30, 2, and Xen. Mem. IV, 6,
13, there quoted.)

Note 1. The Optative in this construction is not found in
Homer, although it is very common in the equivalent relative sen-
tences (§ 62).

Note 2. Here, as in ordinary protasis, the poets sometimes use
the simple et with the Subjunctive instead of edv. (See § 50, 1, N
3.) E.g.

EiVep yap re \oKov yi Ka\ avrrjuap Koran etyn ,

'AXXa ye Kal p.eTOTricr8ev e^ei kotov, o<f>pa reXe'a-077. H. I, 81.

Et 8e (pvyjj uev Krjpa ravrfKeyeos Oavdroio,

NiKijtraj 8' at^/x?js dyXaov ev%os eX^,
Hdvres piv ripaxriv 6pa>s veoi rjde naXaioi,

IloXXa be repnvd nadcov epx^rai els 'Aidrjv. Tyrt. XII, 35.

*AXX' avSpa, Ke'i ris j] &o(p6s, rb p.av8dveiv

IldXX' alo~xpbv ovdev Kal to p.r] re'iveiv ayav. SOPH. Ant. 710.

Note 3. The Indicative is sometimes found in the place
of the Subjunctive or Optative in a general protasis of this
kind. Here the speaker merely refers to one of the many
cases in which the event may occur, as if it were the only
case, — that is, he states the supposition as if it were particular,
and not general. E. g.

Ei ris 8vo rj Ka\ nXiovs ris rjpepas Xoy i£erai , pdraios eo~riv, if
any one counts upon two or even more days, he is a fool. Soph. Trach.
944. 'E\ev8epa>s Tro\irevop.ei>, ov Si' dpyrjs rbv ivekas, el Kad ij8ovtjv ri
Spa, e'xovres, i. e. not (having a habit of) being angry with our neigh-
bor, if he acts in any case as he pleases. Thuc. H, 37. (Here the
Indicative 8pa is used as if some particular act of some one neighbor,
and not any act of any neighbor, were in the speaker's mind.) Ei
ris ri enypara, direKplvovro, if any one asked anything, they replied (to
all such). TlIUC. VH, 10. 'E/xi'oei ovk e'l tis kcikcos 7ra<rj(<oi> rjpvve'
to, aXX' ei ris evtpyerovpevos a^apto-ros (paivoiro ■ Xen. Ages.
XI, 3. (Here, without any apparent reason, the writer changes
from the Indicative to the Optative.) See § 62. N. 1.

This use of the Indicative is exceptional in Greek, but it is the
regular construction in Latin and English. See § 48, H Rem. 2.

110 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 52, 1.

Ellipsis and Substitution in Protasis or Apodosis.

§ 52. 1. Very often the protasis is not expressed
in its regular form with et or eav, but is either implied
in something that precedes or follows, or expressed in
a participle, a preposition with its case, an adverb like
oi/Ta><>, or some other part of the sentence.

When a participle takes the place of a protasis, it is
always in the same tense in which the finite verb which
it represents would itself have stood after et or eav, in
the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Optative. (See § 109,
6.) The Present participle stands for both Present and
Imperfect, and the Perfect for both Perfect and Pluper-
fect. (See § 16, 2 ; § 18, 3, Rem.) E. g.

Oi/'re eaBlovai n\elu> rj dvvavTai (pepeiv, Biappayelev yap av' ovt
apcpuvvvvrai 7rXei'a> rj dvvavrai (pe'peiv, dnonviyeiev yap av, they do
not eat more than they can bear, for (if they should) they would burst,
&C. Xen. Cyr. VIII, 2, 21. Avto\ av enopevdno-av rj ol aXXor ra
S' v7ro£vyia ovk r)v dWrj rj ravry eKprjvai, they would have gone them-
selves where the others went; but the animals could not go otherwise
than as they did. Xen. An. IV, 2, 10. So t) yap av Xcoftrjaaio,
II. I, 232. '

Tovto noiovvres ev npdf-ovaiv (i. e. eav no ia><rt v), if they shall do
this (habitually), they wilt prosper. Tovto noujaavTes ev npd^ovcriv
(i. e. eav 7roujo-a>a-u>), if they shall (once) do this, they will prosper.
Tovto noiovvres ev av npdrroiev (1. e. el noiolev), if they should do
this (habitually), they would prosper. Tovto notrio-avTes ev av npa.TToi.ev
(i. e. et noirjaaiev), if they should (once) do this, they would prosper.
Tovto noiovvres ev av enparrov (1. e. el en o low), if they were doing
this (or if they had been doing this), they would be in prosperity. Tovto
noirjaavTes ev av enpaTTov (i. e. el enoi-no~av), if they had done this,
they would be in prosperity .

Ileus drjTa diKns ovo-tjs 6 Zevs ovk dno\a>\ev tov narip ovtov 8r)aas;
i. e. how is it that Zeus has not been destroyed, if Justice exists? Arist.
Nub. 904. (Here SUns ovo-rjs represents el 8Un iarlv.) 'AXX' elaope-
ada dopovs na paare l^ovre s (i. e. eav napao-Teix<opev), but we
shall know, if ice shall enter the house. Soph. Ant. 1 255. 2v 8e k A v co i>
e'lo-ei rdxa (i. e. eav icXvns), but you will soon know, if you listen.
Arist. Av. 1375. So pr) padd>v, unless I learn, for e'dv pr) pd6a>,
Nub. 792. Kai nev tovt e6e\otpi Aids ye Bidovros dptadai, and
this I should like to obtain, if Zeus would only give it. Od. I, 390.
(Here Atos BiBovtos = e I Zeis 8i8oin.) Toiavrd rav yvvai£i o-vvvaicov
(Xois (i. e. tl avvvaiois), such things would you suffer, if you should

§ 52, 1.] ELLIPSIS OR SUBSTITUTION IN PROTASIS. Ill

live with women. AESCH. Sept. 195. OlS' dv o-Korrficraipi ti)v uttjv
6pd>v artt^ovaav darols (i. e. el 6pa>pi). SOPH. Ant. 185. 'Adrjvalcov
8e to clvto tovto irad ovtcdv , SnrXacriav dv rr\v dvvapiv eli(d£eo~8ai
(olpat), but if the Athenians should ever suffer this (jraOovrav = el
ndSoiev), I think it would be inferred that their power was twice as
great. Tiiuc. I, 10. (Here nothing but the context shows that
naBovTdjv does not represent d e'nadov, if they had ever suffered.)
Map.fi.dv 8' dv alrrjcravTos t]k6v cro; cpepoiv av dprov, and if you ever
asked for something to eat. 1 used to come bringing you bread. Arist.
Nub. 1383. (Here alrfjaavros represents ei alr^aeias in a general
supposition, § 51. For tjkov dv see § 30, 2, and § 42, 3.) JJp\v
yevio-8ai fjuio-Trjo-ev dv tls d ko v o~ as (i. e. el rjKovaev), before it hap-
pened, any one would have disbelieved such a thing, if he had heard it.
TlIUC. VII, 28. Oil yap dv peraneiBeiv vpds e(v-ei pr) roiavrns
ovarjs rr)s vTrapxovo-ns vTroXt^ecos, for he would not be seeking to
change your minds, if such ivere not the prevailing opinion (i. e. et prj
Toiavrr] tjv). Dem. Cor. 304, 1. Mr) Karnyoprjo-avros Aio-y/kou
pT)&ev e£-a> t?]s ypa(pr\s oliS" dv e'y£> Xoyov ovbeva etroiovprjv erepov (l. e.
el prj KaTT)y6prio~ev). lb. 236, 28. Td axird dv enpa^e (cat irpa>TTf
"kaxovaa (i. e. el npiorn e\ax*v), it (the soul) would have done the
same, even if it had had the frst choice by the lot. Plat. Rep. X, 620 D
So Thuc. VII, 13, 1.

To pev en' eneLvm iroWaias dv bie^vdijo-av, if it had depended on
him, they often ivould 'have been disbanded. Isoc. Pan. p. 70 B. § 142.
Aid ye vpds avrovs ndXai dv dnoXvXeiTe, if it had depended on your-
selves, you would long ago have been ruined. Dem. Cor. 242, 10. (So
nad' vpds.) IldXat yap dvevetcd ye \^rj(p io- par iov e'SeSooKft SIkijv,
for, if decrees were of any avail, he ivould long ago have suffered
punishment. Dem. 01. Ill, 32, 16. (Here the protasis is implied in
evexa \l/r](pio-pdTa>v.) Ovrco yap ovKtTi tov Xonrov ivdaxoipev av
KaKa>s,for in that case we should no longer suffer. Dem. Phil. I, 44.
12. So 03S ovtco nepiyevopevos dv, Xen. An. I, 1, 10. Ovo av
biieaicos es KaKov neo-oipi ti. Soph. Ant. 240.

In these cases the form of the apodosis will generally show what
form of protasis is implied. When the apodosis is itself expressed
by an Infinitive or Participle (§ 53), as in Thuc. I, 10, the form of
the protasis is shown only by the general sense of the passage.

Remark. The Future participle is not used in protasis to rep-
resent the Future Indicative, as it would denote time future rela-
tively to the time of the apodosis (§ 28), which the Future Indica-
tive in protasis does not do. The Present and Aorist participles,
representing the Present and Aorist Subjunctive, express future
conditions, thus making the Future participle unnecessary. The
Aorist participle in protasis can always represent an Aorist Subjunc
tive in the sense explained § 20, N. 1.

Note 1. An ellipsis of the verb of the protasis takes p'ace
in the Homeric et 8" dye, for et 8e poiXei, dye. and in such ex-
pressions as el p>) did tovto, had it not been for this. E. g.

112 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 52, 1.

Ei 8' d'ye, tol KecpaXf) Karavevaopai. II. T, 524. Ei 8' aye pr)vy
rrei'p^crai, Iva yuaxoai Kai oide, but if you icish, come now, try it. II. I,
302. Kai el prj Sid tqv npvTaviv, evenecrev civ, and, had it not been for
the Prytanis, he tcould have been thrown in. Plat. Gorg. 516 E.
(Compare bid ye vpas, Dem. Cor. 242, 10, quoted § 52, 1.) Ov yap
as el pq did AaKedaipoviovs, ovd wr ei prj Ilpo^evov ov% viredtt-avTa,
o£8' d>s ei pi) 8x 'Hyrjcrimrov, ovd' u>s el pi) did to koi to, eaadnaav av
oi Qcdtcels, oi>x ovtco tots dirqyyeiXev , for he did not then report that, if
it had not been for the Lacedaemonians, — or if they had not refused
to receive Proxenus, — or if it had not been for Hegesippus, — or if it
had not been for this and that, — the Phocians would have been saved,
Dem. F. L. 364, 12. So el pi) Kpepdvas, had I not done it by hanging
up, &c. Arist. Nub. 229. So in alternatives: see Note 2. (Ci".
§ 53, Note 1.)

Note 2. In alternatives, et 8e prj, otherwise, regularly intro-
duces the latter clause, even when the former clause is negative.
Ei 8e pr\ is much more common than eav de prj, even when eav
pev with the Subjunctive precedes. E. g.

Upus TavTa prj tvttt ' el de prj, o-avTov itot aiTiaaet, therefore do
not beat me ; but if you do, you will have yourself to blame for it.
Arist. Nub. 1433. YloXepov oxik eiu>v nouiv' el be prj, Kai avrol
avayKaa6r)aeo~6ai e'cpaaav (piXovs noieiaBai. ovs ov fiovXovrai, they said
that otherwise (ei be pi)) they should be obliged, &c. Tnuo. I, 28.
Eittov (Uavaavlq) tov KtjpvKos pi) XelireaQai • el be pi) , noXepov avra
Sn-upridras irpoayopeveiv, they ordered him not to be left behind by the
herald: and if he should be (el de pi]), {they told him) that the Spartans
declared war aga'mst him. Id. I, 131. 'Eav pev ti vplv Bokco Xeyeiv
uXtjOes, £vvopoXoyi)aaTe ' el be pi), iravrl Xdyw aVTireiVere. Plat.
Phaed. 91 C. So in Dem. Phil. HI, p. 129, 14, 'eav p.iv ireiorjTe, . - .
ei be pi), k.t.X.

2. The protasis is often altogether suppressed, leaving
only an Optative with av or an Indicative with av as an
apodosis. Here some indefinite or general protasis is
always implied ; as if he pleased, if he could, if an
opportunity should offer, if it were necessary, if it were
true, if we should consider, if what is natural should
happen, &c. E. g.

lo-a>s av ovv tis en it i pi) ere te roir elprjpevois, perhaps some one
might (if he pleased) find fault with what has been said. Isoc. Arecp.
p. 146 E. § 36. Tai ovk av ^ao-iXr)as dva o-Top! ex^v dyo pevots,
therefore you should not take kings upon your tongue and talk (i. e-
you would not, if you should do as you ought). II. II, 250. Tovto our
\v ovtos ex01 Ae'yeiv olid' vpels n eia8 ei'ijre , neither would he be

§ 53.] SUPPRESSION OF THE PROTASIS. 113

able to say this (if he should try), nor would you believe it. Dem.
Andr. 598, 20. 'Hfieajs 8' av eya>y' epoipnv AenTivnv, but I would
gladly ask Leptines (if an opportunity should offer). Id. Lept. 496, 8.
Aei£ara) as ol GerraAoi vvv ovk av zkevBtpoi yevoivro acrpevoi, let
him show that they would not noio gladly become free (if they could).
Id. 01. II, 20, 18. BacriXeia oiKoBopeiv rjpxero, a>s hv tKava dnopdxe-
a6ai fin, so that it might be strong enough to fight from (if it should be
necessary). Xen. Cyr. Ill, 1,1.

Ov yap t)v oriav e note ire, for there was nothing that you could
have done (if you had tried). Dem. Cor. 240, 15. ILoia>v S" av ?pya>v
rj novcovfj KivBvvav an earn a- av; and from what acts, Sfc., would they
have shrunk (i. e. if they had been required) ? Isoc. Pan. p. 57 0.
§ 83. UoWov yap av rj v a^ia, for they would be worth much (if that
were true). Plat. Rep. II, 374 D. So fiovkolpnv av (velim), I
could wish (in a certain future case) ; tfiovkopnv av (vellem), / should
now wish (on a certain condition, not fulfilled).

Note. The Optative with av, used in this way, often has

the force of a mild command or exhortation, and sometimes

a sense approaching that of the Future Indicative. E. g.

Ae'yoty av, you may speak (lit. you could speak, if you should desire
it), implying el /3ouAoio. 2v pev ko pilots av creavrov rj #eXety, you
may take yourself off whither you please. Soph. Antig. 444. (This
is merely a milder expression than Kopi£e.) KXvois av rjSrj, $01/3?
TTpoa-Tarrjpie, i. e. hear now. Id. El. 637. Xapois av el'crco. Id.
Phil. 674. So Antig. 1339. IIoi ovv, i'cpnv e'yci), r paivoiped' av
en ; in what other direction then, said I, shall ice turn (lit. should we
turn, if we should wish) ? Plat. Euthyd. 290 A. Ovk av pedelfinv
tov dpovov, I will not give up the throne. Arist. Ran. 830.

Remark. In such examples as Hdt. I, 2, 'EWtjvoov nvas (paa-i
apnacrai 'Evpannv etno~av 8' av ovroi Kprjres, there is no excep-
tional use of the Optative with civ referring to the past ; but the
meaning is these would prove to be Cretans (if we should examine the
case). So avrai Be ovk av 7roXXai elno~av, these would not prove (on
investigation) to have been many. Tiiuc. I, 9.

§ 53. The apodosis may be expressed by an Infini-
tive or Participle, where the construction of the sentence
requires it; each tense of the Infinitive or Participle
representing its own tenses of the Indicative or Optative.
(The Present includes also the Imperfect, and the Per-
fect also the Pluperfect.)

If a finite verb in the apodosis would have taken av,
that particle is joined with the Infinitive or Participle.
The Present Infinitive or Participle with av represents

Hi CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§53.

either an Imperfect Indicative with av, or a Present
Optative with av ; the Perfect, either a Pluperfect Indic-
ative or a Perfect Optative; and the Aorlst, either an
Aorlst Indicative or an Aorist Optative. (See § 41.)
The context must decide in each case, whether an In-
finitive or Participle with av represents the Indicative
or the Optative. E. g.

Hyovp.ai, cl tovto noielTe, ndvra Ka\a>s e\eiv , / believe that, if you
are doing this, all is well. 'Hyovuai, edv tovto itoirjTe, travra icaXcbs
e£eiv, I believe that, if you (shall) do this, all will be well. 'Hyovpai,
et tovto irowlre, rrdvra KaXcos av e^eiv, / believe that, if you should
do this, all would be well. 'Hyovpai, el tovto eVoujcrare, navra tcaXais
av e^eiv, I believe that, if you had done this, all would (now) be well.
Ol8a vuds, edv tovto noifire, ev n pdt-ovr as , I know that, if you do
this, you will prosper. 2*c<='/z/iara tu>v pa8ia>s dwoKTivvvvrav /cat ava-
(3 i&xr KOfxivav y av, el oioi re rjvav, considerations for those icho
readily put men to death, and who would bring them to life again too, ij
they could. Plat. Crit. 48 C. (,Avai3icoaKop.4voov av = dvefiicoo-KOvro
av.) See the examples of each tense of the Infinitive and Participle
with av, under § 41 and § 73.

Ilcbs yap oi< o~6c Bvo~xepa>s aKoveiv 'OXvvdlovs, et tis ti Xeyoi Kara.
QiXIttttov <ar eiceivovs tovs XP°V0VS > how unwillingly do you think
they heard it, if any one said anything against Philip in those times f
Dem. Phil. II, 70, 25. (Here dicoveiv represents the Imperfect
tjkovov, § 15, 3.) For an example of the Perfect Infinitive with av,
representing the Pluperfect, see § 41, 2.

Note 1. The apodosis is sometimes omitted for effect,

when some such expression as it is well can be supplied, or

some other apodosis at once occurs to the reader. E. g.

'aXX' el fiev 5<L<tovo"i yepas p.eyddvp.01, 'A^atoi, dpaavres Kara 6vp.bv,
ottcos dvrdt-tov ea~rai, — el 84 Ke pfj doxoatv, e'yco 84 nev avros eXco/xat.
II. I. 135. (Here we must understand ev ei-ei, it will be well, or
something similar, after ecrrai.) Ei' nep yap k eBeXr/o-iv 'OXvpirios
do repoirqTrjs e£ 484a>v orv(peXij;ai " — 6 yap ttoXv (pepraTos eoriv. 11.
I, 580. (Here we must understand he can do it after the protasis.
The following yap refers to tins suppressed apodosis.) El p.ev e'-yoj
vuds iKavus 8i8daKO) olovs 8el irpbs dXX-qXovs elvai * — el 8e p.1), *a\ rrapa
Toiv TTpoyeyevT]fj.4v(i>v pavddvere. Xen. Cyr. VHI, 7, 23. Compare
Aescil Prom 835.

Note 2. Very often the apodosis is not directly expressed
by the verb on which the protasis depends, but is merely im-
plied in the context. Here the form of the protasis is deter-
mined by the implied apodosis. In such sentences el or tav

§ 53.] ELLIPSIS OR SUBSTITUTION IN APODOSIS. 115

may generally be translated by supposing that, or in cast that.
E.g.

Tovvetca vvv to. era yovvad' Udvofiat, at k edeXnada Kelvov Xvypbv
oXedpov evMTneiv, therefore I am now come to your knees, in case you
shall be willing to tell me of his sad death (i. e. that you may tell me, in
case you shall be willing). Od. Ill, 92. See Od. I, 94. (Here Udvo-
pai does not contain the apodosis to at k iOeXyo-Oa, which is rather
implied in what follows.) Tuv vvv fi.iv pvr)aaaa irape£eo Kai Aa/3e
yovvmv, a t Kev itus edeXrjo-iv e'nl Tpcoecraiv dpr)£ai, grasp his knees,
in case he shall be willing to assist the Trojans (i. e. that you may cause
him to assist them, if he shall be willing). H. I, 408. So at Ktv ttcos
/SovXerat (often explained as an indirect question), II. I, 66. Ovkovv
en eXXeiirerai to rjv ireirrcopev vpas w? XP'l r)pds drpelvai ; is not
this then still left to us, — in case we shall persuade you that you must
let us go (sc. to have you do this) ? i. e. to have you let us go, if we
shall persuade you that you must? Plat. Rep. I, 327 C. "Akovctov ko\
epov, iav croi ravra 8okt}, hear me also, in case the same shall please
you, i. e. that then you may assent to it. lb. II. 358 B. "En Kai vvv
dpds noiovvrai, e'l tis in iktj pv Keicrai Tlipcrais, even to this day
they invoke curses, if there is any one who sends heralds to the Persians.
ISOC. Pan. p. 73 D. § 157. *Wrai npos ere 8e0p' dcpiypeda, ei riva
iroXiv cppdaeias rjp.1v evepov, we are come hither as suppliants to you,
in case you should tell us of some fleecy city (implying thinking that we
might go and live in such a city, if you should tell us of one). Akist.
A v. 120. Ot 8' wKreipov, el aXaxroivro, and others pitied them,
in case they should be captured (i. e. thinking what they would suffer
if they should be captured). Xen. An. I, 4. 7. IIpos rr)v iroXiv, el
tirifiorjdo'iev, ivapovv, they marched towards the city, in case they
(the citizens) should rush out (i. e. that they might meet them, if the>/
should rush out). TilUC. VI, 100. 01,8' rjv tov roXipov vre'pas ov8'
anaXXayr) QiXiTrna, el pr) Qrjfiaiovs Kai QerraXovs e^Opovs iroiqaeie
Tj) iroXei, i. e. Philip saiv that he could neither end nor escape the ivar,
unless he should make the Thebans and Thessalians hostile to the city.
Djcm. Cor. 276, 1. See Soph. O. C. 1770 ; Plat. R. p. IV, 434 A.
In the examples from Homer and Plato the protasis belongs under
§ 50, 1, the implied apodosis referring to the future; in the example
from Isocrates the protasis belongs under § 49, 1; in that from
Aristophanes, under § 50, 2, the implied apodosis being in the
Optative with av or some equivalent form ; while in the next three
the protasis ha? been changed (on the principle of indirect discourse)
froin el dXwo-ovrat, iav enijUonBooo-iv, and iav pr) iroiTjcra) of the direct
discourse, on account of the past tense of the leading verb. For a
further explanation of this construction, and other examples, see
§ 77, I.e. See also § 71, N. 1, and the examples, which are to be
explained on the principle of this note.

Note 3. Sometimes the adverb av stands alone to represent, the
apodosis, when the verb to which it belongs can be easily supplied
from the context. In like manner el alone may represent the pre*

116 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 53

tasis. Ihe expression axnrep av el (sometimes written as one word,
aanepavei, quasi) includes both cases. See § 42, 3, N. 2, with the
examples.

"Qa-irep with the participle (§ 109, N. 9) generally belongs to an
apodosis understood. So in such expressions as aavep el Xe'yois, as
(it would be) if you should say.

Note 4. When ttXt/i/ el is used for el ufj, unless, there is an
ellipsis of an apodosis after itXtjv. E. g.

Ov8e to. ovouara oiov re avroiv eldevat, tt\t)V et tis KO)/i<»So7rotoi
rvyxdvei a>u, it is not possible to know even their names, except (it is
possible) in case one happens to be a comedian. Plat. Apol. 18 C.

Remark. Expressions of a wish like el yap yevoiro, 0 that it
might be, and et yap iyevero, 0 that it had been, are protases with the
apodosis suppressed. See Rem. at the end of Sect. VI.

Mixed Constructions. — Irregularities in Protasis or

Apodosis.

§ 5<l. The regular forms of protasis and apodosis ex-
plained above (§§ 49, 50, 51) include by far the greater num-
ber of the examples found in the classic authors. Many cases
remain, however, in which the protasis and apodosis do not
belong to the same form. These admit of various explana-
tions : —

1. (a.) When an Indicative in the protasis (in either of the
constructions of § 49, 1 or 2) is followed by an Optative with
av in the apodosis, the latter properly belongs to an implied
protasis in the Optative (on the principle of § 52, 2). Thus, in

the sentence el ravra ovras e\et, ovk av diKaicos Ko\d£oiTO, if this

is so, he would not justly be punished, Ko\d£oiTo av belongs to a
protasis in the Optative, if justice should be done, implied in
Sixains ; while the protasis el ... . e^ei belongs as a condition
to the expressed apodosis with its implied protasis. The sense
therefore is, if this is so, (the result is that) he would not be
punished if justice should be done. The same principle applies
to a primary tense of the Indicative in protasis, followed by a
secondary tense with an in apodosis.

This is sometimes the meaning, when a Subjunctive or
Future Indicative (§ 50, 1) is in the protasis, with an Optative
with av in the apodosis. (See the last two examples.} E. g.

§ 54, 1.] MIXED CONSTRUCTIONS. 117

Ei 8e Tis ddaidrav ye Kar oxipavov elXrjXovQas , ovk av eyarye
Oto'iaiv inovpavioicri pa-^oipnv, but if thou art one of the immoiiaJs
come from heaven, I would not fight against the Gods of heaven. II.
VI, 128. (Here the principal protasis to paxo'ipnv dv is implied, if I
should have my choice.) JJoXXrj yap av elbaipovia t in nepl tovs veovs,
el eis pev povos avrovs 8ia(p8e ipei, ol 8" dXXai wipeXovaiv, Jbr
there would (naturally) be great happiness, &c. Plat. Apol. 25 B.
iioT ei poi koi pe'crus rjyovpevoi pdXXov erepcov irpoo-civai avra iroXepeiv
ene io-Qnre , ovk av (Ik6to>s vvv tov ye aftiKelv alrlav <pe poi pnv , if
you were persuaded to make war by thinking, 8fc, I should not now
justly be charged with injustice. Thuc. II, 60. (Here a protasis
to (pepolpnv civ is implied in elKoras-) El yap ovroi opdcos anio-Tr)-
a-av, vpei? av ov ^ptooi/ dp^otre, for if these had a right to secede,
it would follow that your dominion is unjust. Id. Ill, 40. El vvv ye
8vo~tvxov pev, 7TC6S rdvavri av Trpdrrovres ov o~a£oi pe6' av; if
now we are unfortunate, how should we not be safe if we should do the
opposite? ^ ARIST. Ran. 1449. (Here Trpdrrovres = el irpdrroipev is
the principal protasis to which the optative refers.) Ei tovt ene-
\eipovv Xeyeiv, ovk ecrd' daris ovk av eluorms eir it iprj o~e le pot, if
I were undertaking to say this (§ 49, 2), every one would censure me
with reason (i. e. ei ra etVdra iroi'no-eiev). Dem. Cor. 296, 24. (Here
many Mss., and Dion. Hal. p. 1054, read eneTipncre, the ordinary
apodosis.) Et pnbcva tcov dXXav lirneveiv e'iaaav, ovk av diKaioas
dpyi^oiade avrois. Lys. Alcib. II, § 8.

Katroi Tore tov Yjrepeidnv, e'lnep dXrjdij pov vvv Karnyope!, pdXXov
a v eiKOTws *} tov8 e 8 la> kcv , and yet, if he is now making true charges
against me, he would then have prosecuted Hypereides with inuch more
reason than this man. Dem. Cor. 302, 24. (Here ibiatKev dv refers
chiefly to the implied protasis, if he had done what was more reason-
able.) Such examples seldom occur.

Ovde yap av noXXal ye<pvpai coaiv, e^oipev av ottoi (pvyovres
qpeis o-a>8wpev. Xen. An. H, 4, 19. (Here the implied protasis is
if we should wish to escape.) See An. V, 1, 9.

Qpovpiov el noiijaovrai, rrjs pev yrjs fiXdirroiev av ti pepos,
ov pevroi Ikovov ye earai KcoXveiv fjpds, k.t.X., if they shall build a
fort, they might {under favorable circumstances) injure some part of
our land; but it will not be sufficient to prevent us, &c. Thuc. I, 142.

(b.) A Subjunctive or Future Indicative in the protasis
sometimes depends on an Optative with av in the apodosis,
when no other protasis can readily be supplied. This expresses
the protasis more vividly than the regular Optative. (See
§ 50, 2, Rem. b, and § 34, 1, b.) It must be remembered also
that the Optative with av is sometimes merely a softened ex-
pression for the Future Indicative (§ 52, Note). E. g.

'Eav tovto it o i i) a- a> , KaXas av ex01' tf I do this, it would be well.
(Here the irregularity is the same in English as in Greek : the regu

118 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 54, 1

lar form in both would be either edv tovto ttoltjo-co, KaXcos e£ei, if T «V
this, it will be well; or el tovto noirjo-aipi, KaXws av e\oi, if I should do
this, it would be well.) Kai ourcos av deivoTara ndvTaiv irddoiev, el
ovtoi 6u6yl/-rj(poi kot eneivcov t&v dv8pcov rots TpiaKovTa y evrjaovT at
Lys. Agor. p. 139, 6. § 94. (Here we should expect el yevoivro.)
Tcoi/ cltotvotcitcxiv /xevT av e'lrj, el, a vvv dvoiav dcpXiaicdvcov ou.as eVXa-
Xel, TavTa 8vvnde\s pf] irpdtjei. Dem. 01. I, 16, 25. *Hv ovv pddrj s
poi tov ddiKov tovtov Xoyov, ovk av dnoSolnv oib' av o(3oX6v ovdevi,
if you shall learn this for me, I will not (or / would not) pay even an
obol to any one. Arist. Nub. 116. (This and many other examples
might be explained equally well on either principle, a or 6.)

2. (a.) An Optative in the protasis sometimes depends
upon a primary tense of the Indicative or an Imperative in the
apodosis. This arises from the slight distinction between the
Subjunctive and Optative in protasis, as eav exit and « ?xot' f°r
which the Latin has but one form, si habeat. (See § 48, I, B,
Rem. 2.) In fact, the irregularity in el tovto yevoiro, nama
KoXas et-ei, is precisely the same as in the English if this should
happen, all will be well, where the more regular apodosis would
be all would be well, as in Greek, ndvra KaXws av e^ot. E. g.

'AXX' el tls fioi dvfjp dp.' cttoito Ka\ aXXos, udXXov SaXnaprj Kai
6apo~akea>Tepov eaTai. II. X, 222. Ei deXoip.' y o-Konelv Tas (pvcreis
rds rS>v dvdpwncov, evprjo-ofiev, k.t.X. IsOC. ad Nicocl. p. 23 D.
§45. EiTLSTdbeirapafiaivoi, e'vayrjs eo~Ta>. AESCHIN. Cor. § 110.
Iu such cases the Optative is a less animated form of expression than
the regular Subjunctive.

(b.) The Optative sometimes stands in the protasis, when

the apodosis contains a primary tense of a verb denoting

necessity, obligation, propriety, possibility, &c, with an Infinitive,

the two forming an expression that is nearly equivalent in

sense to an Optative with av. E. g.

Ei yap e'lno-av hvo Ttves ivavrioi vopoi, ovk dp.(poTepois evi Srj7rov
^n<pio-ao-6ai, for if there should be two laws opposed to each other,
you could not surely vote for both. Dem. Timocr. 711, 8. (See § 63,
4, b.) This is analogous to the use of the Imperfect of the same
verbs, explained in § 49, 2, Note 3. There, for example, evrjv avrm
e'Xdeiv, he could have gone, is nearly equivalent to rjXBev av, and here
eveuTiv avTu> eXQeiv, he could go, is nearly equivalent to eXdot av.

3. A few irregular constructions remain, which can be ex-
plained only as cases of anacoluthon, in which the speaker
adapts his apodosis to a form of protasis different from thai
which he has actrally used. E. g.

§ 55. 2.] MIXED CONSTRUCTIONS. 119

Eyw pev av, ei e^oi/ii, Q)r ra^icrra cnrha enoiovprjv naai Hep-
craty. Xex. Cyr. II, 1, 9. (Here enouwpr]v <iv is used as if et elx^v,
if I were able, had preceded. We should expect noiotprjv <1v, which
is found in one Ms.) Et pev yap els yvva'ma o~a><ppoveo~Tepav £i<pos
uedelpev, 6vo-ic\er)s av rjv cpSvos. Eur. Orest. 1132. (Here we
should expect e'1'7.)

Remark. The same apodosis, in either the Indicative or Opta-
tive, may take one protasis in the Indicative referring to present or
past time, and another in the Optative referring to a supposed future
case. E. g.

'Eyco ovv 8eiva av etnv elpyaapevos, el, ore pev pe oi apxovres erar-
tov, t6t( piv epevov, tov 8e 6eov tottovtos, Xiwoipi rijv rdt-iv, I
should therefore (prove to) have behaved outrageously, if when the state
authorities stationed me I stood my ground, but if now when God sta-
tions me I should desert my post. Plat. Apol. 28 E. (Here the
combination of the two acts is the future condition on which the
apodosis depends.) 'Enevxopai iracri tovtois, el aXrjdrj npos vpas
e'lnoipi Kai elnov Ka\ tot evOvs ev to> dfjpco, evrv)(iav poi dovvai,
i e. if I should speak the truth and did speak it then, &c. Dem. Cor.
274, 28. Et §e prjT ecrri pyre f/v pr/r av elTreiv e'x01 pr/beis prjhenat
Ka\ TTjpepov, Tt tov o~vn3ovkov exP*lv Troielv ; but if there neither is nor
was (any such thing), and if no man yet even at this day could possibly
tell of any, what ought the statesman to have done (ivhich was not
done) f lb. 291, 28. (See § 50, 2, N. 2, and § 49, 2, N. 3.)

§ 55. 1. Two or more protases, not co-ordinate, may be-
long to one apodosis. E. g.

Kai yap av ovtos tl iradr), ra^e'co? vpeis erepov <&i\nnrov Troirjo-eTe,
avnep ovto) tt poo-ex1)7 e TO'y irpaypaai tov vovv. Dem. Phd. I, 43,
12. Et 8' ijpev vtoi Sis ko\ yepovres, e'l tis e £r/ pa prave , bnrXov
/3t'ou XaxovTes e^ovpdovpeff civ. Eur. Suppl. 1084. Et Tis ore dve-
poiTO tovto, rt ecrri crx^pa ; el ai>T& elites on o~Tpoyyv\oTr]s, et crot
enrev anep eya>, eines drjirov av on o'X'jpd. Tl. Plat. Men. 74 B.

2. It sometimes happens, that the apodosis is itself in a
dependent sentence (as in a final clause), which determines its
mood without reference to the preceding rules. In this case,
if the leading verb is in a secondary tense, so that the apodosis
takes the Optative, the protasis also takes the Optative by the
general rule (§ 31, 1), even if it would otherwise have the
Subjunctive. E. g.

Tavra 8' enrev, iv el pev Kai vvv it poo~8o kt] o~at pi avrbv epeiv,
arroXoyovpevos nep\ avTcov 8iarpt/3ot/xi , et 8e napaX iir oipi , vvv
aiiTos eiiroi, and he said this, in order that, if on the one hand 1
should still expect him to tell it, I should waste time about it in my de-
fence ; but if on the other hand I should omit it. he might now tell it

120 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 55, 2

himself. Dem. Aph. I, 830, 8. (If a primary tense stood for elnev, we
6hould have, e. g. ravra Xe'yei, ?i/' eav pev n pocrSo kt) cro> alrbv ipeiv,
§iarpt/3a>, eav 8e irapaXlnai , vvv e 'in n .)

Remark. For the forms assumed by such sentences when con-
structed on the principle of indirect discourse, see § 77, 1.

§ 56. After many verbs expressing wonder, delight,
contentment, indignation, disappointment, and similar
ideas, a protasis with ei may be used where a causal
sentence would seem more natural. Such verbs are
especially davpia^oi, aia^yvofxat, wyairaco, and ayavar
KTeco. E. g.

Qavpd£a> 8' eycoye el pr]8e\s vpoov prjT evBvpelrai (UjT 6pyi£erai,
6po>v, k.t. X., / wonder that no one of you is either concerned or angry,
when he sees, &c. (lit. if no one is either concerned or angry, I wonder).
Dem. Phil. I, 52, 17. (See Rem. below.) 'AX\' eKeivo Qavpdfa, el
AaKeSaifioviots pev nore dvrnpare, wvl 8' oKveire e£tevai Km peXXere
fla(pepeiv, but I wonder at this, that you once opposed the Lacedaemo-
nians, but now are unwilling, &c. Id. 01. II, 25, 2. (The literal
meaning is, if {it is true that) you once opposed, Ifc, then I wonder.)
Ovk dyana el prj oucqv e8aiK€v, aXX' el pr) Kal xpverco crre<f)ai>a> crre-
(pawco6fj<Terai ayavaKTei, he is not content if he was not punished ; but
if he is not also to be crowned with a golden crown, he is indignant.
Aeschin. Cor. § 147. (Here the former protasis belongs under
§ 49, 1, and the latter under § 49, 1, N. 3.)

Kat cos dXnOais dyavaKTU), e I ovrooai a voa> pi] otos T elpi elnelv,
I am indignant that (or if) I am not able, &c. Peat. Lach. 194 A.
Ov 8rj 6avpao~Tov e'anv, e I orparevopevos Ka\ irovav er.eivos avros
vpatv peWovrcov Kai y\rn<pi£opevoc>v Kai nvvOavopevaiv nepiyiyverai, it is
no wonder that he gets the advantage of you, &c. Dem. 01. II, 24, 23.
Mrj8e pevroi tovto peiov 86£r)re e^eiv, c I ol Kvpeioi irpocrBev o~vv rjpiv
TciTTopevoi vvv d(p€crrr]Ka<Tiv, i. e. do not be discontented, if (or that) the
Cyraeans have now withdrawn. Xen. An. Ill, 2, 1 7.

These verbs may also be followed by on and a causal sentence,
as in Plat. Theaet. 142 A, edaipafav on ovx olos r rj evpeiv. The
construction with el gives a milder or more polite form of expression,
putting the object of the wonder, &c. into the form of a supposition,
instead of stating it as a fact, as we should do in English. The forms
of protasis quoted above belong under § 49, 1. For the form some-
times assumed by these sentences on the principle of indirect dis
course, see § 77, 1, c.

Remark. This construction must not be mistaken for that in
which ft is used in the sense of whether, to introduce an indirect
question ; as, envOero el <rv napelrjs, he asked whether you were present
For this see § 68, 3, and § 70.

§ 58, 2. J Ae' IN AP0D0SI3. 121

§ 57, The apodosis is sometimes introduced by the con-
junction 8e, as if the apodosis formed a sentence co-ordinate
with the protasis, instead of being (a-< it is) the leading sen-
tence. This is especially common in Homer and Herodotus,
and rare in Attic prose. It occurs when the apodosis is to be
emphatically opposed to the protasis. Instead of 6« we some-
times find d\\d or avrdp. E. g.

Et 8e K€ pr/ haaxTiv, ey<u 8e Kfv alros eXcopai, but if they do not give
it up, then I will take it myself. II. I, 137. 'AX>d is found in II. I,
82, quoted § 51, N. 2. Et irtp yap r aXXot ye TrepiKTeiva>pe8a TrdvTes
mjvcrlu eV 'ApyetW, erot 8' ov 8eos ear dirokto-Qai. II. XII, 245. Et
8e Bavovratv nep KaraKr)6ovr tlv 'At'Sao, avrdp e'yw kq\ Keidi (piXov
fiefivf/trofi eralpov. II. XXII, 389. Et vpiv (Wi tovto pi] bvvarbv
troirjcrai, vpies & e en Kal viiv in tov pe'crov rjplv f£eo~8e. Hdt. VIII,
22. AXX ei prjbe tovto ftovXei dnoKpivaadai, av de TovvTtvdfv Xe'ye .
Xkn. Cyr. V, 5, 21.

This 8e in apodosis cannot be expressed in English ; as our ad-
verbs then, yet, still, &c, necessarily fail to give the force of the Greek
de, which is always a conjunction.

Remark. Ae may be used in the same way tf introduce the
sentence upon which a relative clause depends. L/ee Remark be
fore § 65.

SECTION III.

Relative and Temporal Sentences.

§ 58. 1. Relative sentences may be introduced not
only by relative pronouns and pronominal adjectives,
but also by relative adverbs of time, place, or manner.
They include therefore all temporal clauses, except
those introduced by Trpiv and other particles meaning
until, which are treated separately (§ 66 and § 67).

2. Relative sentences may be divided into two
classes : —

First, those in which the antecedent of the relative is
definite ; that is, in which the relative pronouns refer to
definite persons or things, and the relative adverbs to
definite points of time, place, &c.

122 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ 08, 2

Secondly, those in which the antecedent is indefinite ,
that is, in which no such definite persons, things, times,
or places are referred to.

Both the definite and the indefinite antecedent may
be either expressed or understood. E. g.

(Definite Antecedents). Tavra a e^co Spas, you see these things
which I have; or aep opas. "Ore e'/3oi3Aero rjXOev, (once) when he
wished, he came.

(Indefinite Antecedents.) JJdvra a av finvXavrai e£ov<riv, they
will have everything which they may want; or a av ftovXcovrai t^ovaiv,
they ivill have whatever they may want. "Ore j3ov\oi.to fjpxcro, when-
ever he wished, he came.

3. When the antecedent is indefinite, the negative
particle of the relative clause is firj ; when the ante-
cedent is definite, ov is regularly used, unless the general
construction requires Mi as in prohibitions, wishes, &c.
(See § 59, Note 1.)

A. Relative with a Definite Antecedent.

§ 59. When the relative refers to a definite ante-
cedent, expressed or understood, it has no effect upon
the mood of the following verb ; and it therefore takes
the Indicative, unless the general sense of the passage
requires some other construction. E. g.

A/yw o ot'Sa. Aeyoo a rJKOvcra. Ae£a> a aKrjKoa. E\e£av a tJkov-
trav. Hdvra Ae'yet a yevrjo-erai- Ylpdacrovcnv a jSovXavrai (or a>s
/SovAoirai), they are doing what they please. (On the other hand,
npdo~o-ovo~iv a av jBovXcovrai (or cos av j3ov\a>vTai,) they always do
whatever they please; the antecedent being indefinite.) Ae'yco a ovk
dyvoa>, 1 am saying that of which I am not ignorant.

'AAA' ore firi o i< to'lo hvoybeKarn yever' rja>s, ko\ Tore &r) npos
OXvprrov 'laav Otoi alev eoWe?. II. I, 493. Ti's etrcT 6 ^copos 8tjt , e'i»
<w fitf5r)Kap.ev. SOPH. O. C. 52. "Ecoff earl icaipos, avriXafieade
tu>v npaypdrcov, i. e. now, while there is an opportunity, &c. Dem. 01.
I, 15, 6 (If the exhortation had been general, he might have said
teas av fl Katpos, (on all occasions) so long as there is an opportunity,
§ 62.) '0 8e dvafids, ecus pev fidaipa rjv, eiri rov Innov rjyev «rei 8i
jfiaTa l)v, KaraXnriov rbv itttvov tcnrtvSe 1"«Cfl• Xen. An. Ill, 4, 49.
So II. I, 193, eW vppaive. Olnep oe ko\ t£>v dirofiaivovToov to 7rXe'o»
ttjs atTias (£opev, ovroi koi »cac? rjovxiav tl qvtwp npoidwmv, we

3 GO, 1 "J DEFINITE ANTECEDENT. 123

who are to bear the greater part of the blame, &c Tnrc. I, 83. 'Odtv
8' ovv parra pa Or) ere cr 6e wtpl avra>v, ivrcvOtv vpas k<u iya> t.ovtov
rreipdcro, lai cnSucrKeiv. Dem. Aph. I, 814, 4. (Here tvTtiiOiv refers to
a particular point, at which he intends to begin.) Compare the
first example under Note 1 . *H 817 Xoiyia e'py, ore p' ^dodontja-ai
€<f> 17 ere is "Hpy, or' av p eptdrjau. 01/etSei'ois eWeercrii', surely there will
be sad work, when you shall impel me, &c. II. I, 518. (Here ore refers
to some time conceived as definite by the speaker; whereas 6V 01
epfByanv, whenever she shall provoke me, is indefinite, and belongs
under § 61, 3.) Ni/| 8 ecrai ore brj arvyepos ydpos dvr ifioXi) at 1
oi/Xopevrjs iptdtv, ti)s re Zei/r oX(3ov dirnv pa. Od. XVTH, 272.

Note 1. When the sense requires it, these clauses admit

all the constructions allowed in independent sentences. E. g.

Ap^opai 8' ivrtvdev odev Kai vptis paar av pddoire Kayo) Tartar
av 8i8dgaip.t. Dem. Aph. IH, 846, 15. (Here the relative
clause contains an apodosis with av, with a protasis el dp^alptjv im-
plied. This must not be confounded with the use of* the Optative
without av, in the other class of relative sentences. See § 61, 4.)
N0i> 8e tovto ov< enoir]aev, ev <a rov 8r/pov e'r t prj ere v av, but he did
not do this, in which he would have honored the people (if he had done
it). Id. Mid. 536, 25. Els KaXov vp.lv " Avvros ofie iraptKadi&To, a>
perabaptv ttjs ^ri)o-ecoy. Plat. Men. 89 E. (Subjunctive in
an exhortation.) Ovkovv a£iov rols twv Karrjyopoiv Xoyois niartvaai
pdXXov r) rols epyois Kat tu> xpovco, ov vptls aacpearaTov eXey%ov rov
dXndovs vo pi a are. Lys. de Bon. Arist. p. 157, § 61. (Here the
Imperative vop-iaare is used in a sort of exclamation after ov, where
ordinarily 8ei vopiaai would be used.) *Av yap dno(pvyr] pe ovros, o
pf] y evoir o , rfjv entofieXlav 6(pXr]aio. Dem. Aph. I, 834, 25.
(Optative in a wish.) "Eaaerai rjpap or av ttot 6Xa>Xt) "iXtos Iprj,
a day will come when sacred Ilium will fall. II. VI, 448. (Here
6Xo)Xj] av is used like a Future Indicative, § 87, Note ; and the ante-
cedent of ore is definite. If civ belonged to ore, the clause would be
a protasis, meaning when Ilium shall fall, a day ivill come.)

Note 2. The relative may be used to express a purpose (§ 65, 1),
or in a causal sense (§ 65, 4). The antecedent may then be either
definite or indefinite.

B. Relative with an Indefinite Antecedent.

§ 60. 1. When the relative refers to an indefinite
antecedent, expressed or understood, the action of its
verb is not stated absolutely as a definite fact, but con-
ditionally as a supposed case; and such a relative sen-
tence has many of the essential qualities of a conditional
sentence.

124 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ 60, 1.

Thus, when we say d voul£ct ravra Xeyet, he is saying what he
{actually) thinks, or a evoni(e tclvtu eXeyev, he was saying what he
thought, the actions of voul(ei and iv6ui£e are stated as actual
facts, occurring at definite times ; but when we say a av voui^jj
(ravTa) Xe'yei, he {always) says whatever he thinks, or d rop.i£oi
(raira) eXeyev, he (always) said whatever he happened to be think-
ing, vo[xi(t) and vofii^ot do not state any such definite facts, but
rather what some one may think (or may have thought) on any
occasion on whicl he is (or was) in the habit of speaking. So,
when we say d vori£ei ravra Xe£«, he will say what he (note)
thinks, vofii^a denotes a fact ; but when we say d av vopi£n Xe'£«,
he will say whatever he happens to be {then) thinking, vofil^rj
denotes merely a case supposed in the future. Again, — to
take the case in which the distinction is most liable to be
overlooked, — when we say d ovk ol8a ovk otopai flScmi, what
I do not know, I do not think that I know, ovk olda, as before,
denotes a simple fact, and its object, d, has a definite antece-
dent ; but when Socrates says d fir) olda ovde otouai elftevcu, the
meaning is if there are any things which I do not know, I do
r.'H even think that I know them. In sentences like this, unless
a negative is used {prf being the sign of an indefinite, oi of a
definite antecedent), it is often difficult to decide whether the
antecedent is definite or indefinite : thus d ol8a ohfiai tlSevat
may mean either what I {actually) know, I think that I know,
or if there is anything which I know, I think that I know it.

The analogy of these indefinite relative clauses to conditional
sentences will be seen at once. The following examples will
make this clearer: —

"On /3ouXerai Saxra>, I will give him whatever he {now) wishes.
Ei ti ftovXerai, Saxrco, if he wishes anything, I will give it. (§ 49, 1.)

O ti ffiovXero e&uKa av, I should have given him whatever he haa
wished. "O ti ur] eyevero ovk av elnov, I shoul/l not have told what
had not happened. Ei' ti «/3ouX ero, eSaxca av, if he had wished any-
thing, I should have given it. Ei ti fir) eyevero, ovk av elirov, if any-
thing had nut happened, I should not have told it. (§ 49, 2.)

ffO n av (3ovXnrai, dtoo-co, / will give him whatever he shall wish.
'Edv ti PovXhtol, Scoctci), if he shall wish anything, I will give it.
(§ff50, I.)

"O ti ftovXotro 8olr]v av, I should give him whatever he might
wish. Ei n /3owXoiro, boinv av, if he should wis! anything, I shouU.
give it. (§ 50, 2.)

§ 61, 1.] CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCE3. 125

*0 ti av (3ov~Kr]Tai 8loa>ui, I (always) give him whatever lie withes.
'0 ti. /SouXotro enldovv, I always gave him whatever he wished. 'Eav
ti (HovXnrai, 8i8copt, if he ever wishes anything, I (ahvays) give iU
Ei tl (iovXoLTo, edidovv, if he ever wished anything, I (always) gave it.
(§ 51.)

2. The relative with an indefinite antecedent may
therefore be called the conditional relative, and the
clause in which it stands may be called the protasis
(like clauses with et or eav*), and the antecedent clause
may be called the apodosis.

3. The particle av (Epic «e) is regularly joined with
all relative words, when they are followed by the Sub-
junctive. The particle here (as always in protasis) is
joined to the relative, never to the verb. (See § 38, 1,
and § 47, 2.)

Note. With ore, Snore, eVei, and itrei.br], av coalesces, forming
orav, onoTav, inav or £iri)v (Ionic iireav), and e'jreioav. In Homer,
where Ke is generally used for av, we have ore «e, &c. (like ei kc),
where in Attic we have orav, &c. 'Enrjv, however, occurs often m
Homer.

Remark. The classification of common conditional sentences,
given in § 48, applies equally to conditional relative sentences.
The distinction between those containing general suppositions
(§ 62) and the corresponding forms containing particular supposi-
tions (§ 61, 1) is especially important.

§ 6Bo We have four forms of the conditional rela-
tive sentence which correspond to the four forms of
ordinary protasis (§ 49, 1, 2, and § 50, 1, 2) : —

1. When the relative clause refers to a definite act
in the present or the past, and no opinion of the speaker
is implied as to the truth of the supposition, the verb
is put in one of the present or past tenses of the In-
dicative. (§ 49, 1.)

The antecedent clause can have any form allowed in
an apodosis (§ 49, 1, Note 1). E. g.

A fir) oi8a, ou8e oiofiai el8evat (like et riva jxi] ol8a). Plat. Apol.

126 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ 61, 1

21 D. (See above, § GO, 1.) Xprjadcov o ti Pov\ovtcu, let them
deal with me as they please (i. e. ei ti (SovXovtcii). Arist. Nub. 439.
'EniarafMaL opau #' a Set pe, kovx opav a prj TrpeTrei, I know how to
see anything which I ought to see, and not to see anything which I ought
not. Euit. Ino Fr. 417. (°A Set is nearly equivalent to ft riva Set,
and a pf] npenfi to et riva pf] 7rpeVet.) Tovs TrXelarovs evdanep eneaov
fKao-rovs i'6a\f/av' ovs 8e pfj evptaKOV, KevoTa(piov avrois twoirjcrav,
i. e. they raised a cenotaph for any of them whom they did not find
(like et tlvos prj cvpiaKov). Xen. An. VI, 4, 9. Tt yap; octis 8ana-
vnpbs coi/ pft avrdoKns £0~t\v, dW de\ tcov 7t\r]0~tov Seirut, /cat Xa/x-
fiavav pfj 8vv arat aVoStSwat, pi) Xap/3riV«i/ 8e tov pfj 8i86vTa pi tret,
oi 5o/cet aoi ical ovtos ^aXe7rof cpiXos elvat, ; (i. e. supposing a case, et
tis . . . . pfj avTcipicrjs ecrrlv, k. t. X.). Id. Mem. II, 6, 2. So fjTis
prj8apov $-v p.fxa)((l, TlIUC. I, 35. "A tis pfj n pocre bo Krjtre v ,
ovde <puXd£acr#ai ey^copet, there is no opportunity to guard against
what we did not expect (like ei' two. pfj Trpoo-e86i<rjo~e tis)- An'TIPHON.
p. 131, 36. § 19. Etf to. 7rXota tovs re aoSfvovvras ive^i^ao-av ko\
tgiv o-kcv&v oaa pf] avay<t] r/v e^etf (like ei' riva Tatv o-K€vu>v prj dvdyKTj
tjv e^etf), i. e. any of it which they did not need. Xen. An. V, 3, 1.
Av6p6)Trovs 8U(pdeipev (17 6a\ao-o~a) oo~oi prj ehvvavTO <f>8rjvai Ttpbs
to. p-ere'copa duaSpapovres, i. e. if any were unable to escape soon enough
to the high land, so many the sea destroyed. Thuc. III, 89. Ots pev
alpeais yeyfvrjrai raXXa firv^oiiai, nuhXfj avoia 7ro\eprjo~cu • et 8'
dvayKalov r)v, K.T.\.,for any who have had the choice given them, ichile
they are prosperous in other respects, it is great folly to go to war (i. e.
ei' Tiaiv atpcarts ytyevrjrai). TlIUC. II, 61. nacres 'laptv Xaftpiav
oi/'re tvtttovto. ovB1 apird^ovra tov ortcpavov ovd' oXu>s 7rpoo~i6v6 ottoi
pr) tt poarjKtv avrw, nor going anywhere at all where it was not law-
ful for him (i. e. ei' ttoi pr) npoa-r)K(v). Dem. Mid. 535, 15. Ilcos ovv 01
dyadol Tois dyaOois (pikoi eaovrat, 01 prjre drrovTes jrodetvoi dXXfjXots
prjTf irapovres xpftav avrcov e^oua-t ; (i. e. et prj . . . e^ovcrt). PLAT.
Lys. 215 B. Nt/cco^ 8' 6 ti ndaiv vplv p.«'XXet avvoiaetv (1. e. ei n
eXXet), may any plan prevail which will benefit you all. Dem. Phil.
55. 7. So Soph. Ant. 375, bs rd8' epSei.

Note. Care must be taken here (as in conditional sentences,
§ 49, 1, Note 2), not to include under this class the general suppo-
sitions of § 62, which require the Subjunctive or Optative. On the
other hand, the examples falling under § 62, Note 1, in which the
Indicative is allowed, might properly be placed here, as they state a
general supposition for emphasis as if it were a particular one (§ 5"
Note 3). See also § 61, 3, Note.

2. When a relative clause, referring to the present or
the past, implies that the condition which it expresses
is not or was not fulfilled (like a protasis of the form
§ 49, 2), its verb is put in a secondary tense of the In
dicative.

i

§ 61, 3.] CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCES. 127

The ancecedent clause also contains a secondary tense
of the Indicative, implying the non-fulfilment of a con-
dition, which may be in an apodosis with av or a pro-
tasis ^§ 49, 2), or in an expression of a wish (§ 83).
E.g.

°A pi] e'^ovXfro bovvai, ovk av ebatKev, he would not have given
what he had not wished to give (i. e. ei' nva pi] e(3ov\ero boivai, ovk av
edasKev). Ovre yap av avro). enexet-povpev irpdrreiv a. pi] fj ma ra-
pt 8a, ovre ro'is o'XXoiy enerpeiropev, fav rj pxo pev, or'AXo ri irpdrreiv rj
o ri TTpciTTOvres opdchs epe X Xov irpd^eiV roi/ro b' rjv av, ov eiriarrr]-
firjv tixov, for (if that were so) we should not be undertaking (as we
are) to do things which we did not understand, nor should we permit
any others whom we were ruling to do anything else than what they
were likely to do properly ; and this would be whatever they had knowl-
edge of. PLAT. Charm. 171 E. (Here a pi] t)wio-rdpeda = ei nva
pi] rjmo-rdpeffa, if there were any things which we did not know, — fav
yjp\opev = ei' rivwv rjpxopev. — on epeXXov — ei' ri epeXXov, — and ov
(Tno-Trjpriv elxov = ei' rivos el\ov. It is implied that none of the cases
here supposed ever actually arose, as the whole passage refers to an
unfulfilled condition expressed in the preceding sentence.) El be
o'Ikoi elxov eKao~rot ray bl<as, tovtovs av aTrfaXXvaav olrives (piXot pdXi-
ara rjaav 'A&tjvalav to Si/pa), if each had their trials at home, they
■would ruin any who were especially friendly, &c. Xen. Rep. Athen.
1, 16. (Here olnves rjo-av, = ei' rives rjcrav, forms a second protasis to
the apodosis aTrfaXXvaav av. See § 55, 1.)

Ei |eVoy e'rvyxavov a>v, £vveyiyva>o~Kere bijnov av pot, el eV eKeivrj rjj
(pcovf] re Kal ra rpoVa) eXeyoy e'v oianep ere 6 pdppnv , if I happened
to be a foreigner, you would surely pardon me, if I were (now) address-
ing you in both the language and the manner in which I had been
brought up. Plat. Apol. 17 P> 'Qy br) eya>y' ocpeXov paKapos vv rev
eppevai vlbs dve'pos, ov Kredreaaiv eois em yrjpas ererpev, 0 that I
were the son of some fortunate man, whom old age had found upon his
o*vn estate (i. e. if old age had found any such man, would that I had
been his son). Od. I, 217.

So when the relative sentence depends on an indicative in a final
clause (§ 44, 3) ; as in Dem. Arist. 635, 15 : raura ye br)nov irpoo-rJKe
ypd^/ai, iva ora> nore roiipyov en pd^dn , rovra rd e< raiv voptav vnr)pxe
biicaia, he ought to have written it in this way, in order that any one by
whom the deed had been done might have his rights according to the
laws. (This implies that the law was not so written, so that the
case supposed in 6Ya> enpax^r] never arose.)

Remark. All examples of this form fall equally well under the
general rule for assimilation, § 64, 2.

3. When the relative clause refers distinctly and viv-
idly to the future (like a protasis of the form § 50, 1),

128 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ Gl, 3

and the verb of the antecedent clause also refers to
the future, the relative is joined with av (or «e) and
followed by the Subjunctive. E. g.

Tdcov r\v k edeXco pi (piXrjv ij-oirja-op' ukoitlv (like ei <i Tiva ede-
Xcopi), whomsoever of these I may wish I shall make my wife. II. IX,
397. 'Ek yap 'OpeVrao riais eWerai 'Arpa'Sao, ottttot av ijfininj re
kol r)s ifieiperai a'tns, i. e. vengeance will come from Orestes, when
he shall grow up, &c. (like idv nore rjfirjorr]). Od. I, 40. Tort 8' avrt
paxrjaerai, omrore Ktv piv 6vpos eVi arrjOecraiv avtoyn feat #eos 6 par).
II. IX, 702. 'AM' ciytd', a)? av tycov e'iirat, irtiOiop' 8a iravres, let us
obey as I may direct, i. e. if 1 give any direction (e'dv was elVa)), let us
obey it. H. II, 139. 'Hue'is avr dX6)(ovs re cpiXas Ka\ vrjTTia re<va
a^opev iv vr\tcroiv, itvhv TrroXUdpov eXcoptv, when we shall have taken
the city. II. IV. 238. So evr av tt'itttcoo-iv, II. I, 242. Ovkovv, orav
8r) pi) trOevio, rreTravaopai, therefore, when I shall hare no more
strength, 1 will cease. Soph. Ant. 91. Tatrra, eVf i8dv ir(p\ tov yivovs
et7ra), e'paj, / will speak of this, when I shall have spoken about my
birth. Dem. Eubul. 1303, 25. (See § 20, Note 1.) 'En(i8av Sta-
rr pd^copat a 8eopai, rjt-co. XeN. An. II, 3, 29. Tiva o'Ucrde avrrjv
y}rv)(r]v e^tiv, orav ipe i8r) tcov irarpiocov aufo-Ttpnptvov ; what feelings
do you think she ivill have, when (or if at any lime) she shall see me,
&C.? Dem. Aph. II, 842, 16. Tovtiov 8e 'Adnvaiovs (pvpl 8riv tivai
TrevraKoa-'iovs, ft- f]s av tivos vpiv fjXiicias kgXcos %xflv 8o k T)'jrom whatever
age it shall seem good to you to take them (i. e. if from any particular
age. &c.) Id. Phil. I, 45, 27. Ta>v npaypariov tovs fiovXevopevovs
(riyfiadai Sel), tva a av tKfivois 8okt) ravra Trpdrrnrai, in order that
whatever shall seem good to them shall be done. lb. 51, 19. Otf uot
(pofiov piXadpov «X7ri? ipnareiv, ecos av a'i6n irvp e<p' iarias fpijs Aiyt-
a6os, so long as he shall kindle f re, &c. Aesch. Agam. 1435.

Note. The Future Indicative is rarely, if ever, used in condi-
tional relative clauses, as in common protasis (§ 50, 1, Note 1), in
the place of the Subjunctive ; as it would generally be ambiguous,
appearing as if the antecedent were definite. "Oaot ^ovX^o-on-ai,
Thuc. I, 22, is perhaps to be explained in this way. See Xex.
Cyr. I, 5, 13. In such examples as w pi) ris avros Traptarai, wv~
less he was to be present himself, the Future is used as it is in the
form of protasis explained § 49, 1, N. 3.

4. When the relative clause refers to the future less
distinctly and vividly (like a protasis of the form § 50,
2), and the antecedent clause contains an Optative re-
ferring to the future, the relative is followed by the
Optative (without av).

The Optative in the antecedent clause may be in an

§ 62.] GENERAL SUPPOSITIONS. 129

y

apodosis with av or a protasis (§ 50, 2), in an expres*
sion of a wish (§ 82), or in a final clause. E. g.

Ma'Xa Ktv dpacrvKapftios e'lrj, os rare yndf]0'ei(v l8iov i\6vov ov8
d/caxoiTo (l. e. e'l tis yrjdfjaeie, pd\a Kev dpacrvicupSios ft'?), any one
who should then rejoice would be very stout-hearted. II. XIII, 343
So II. VI, 329 and 521 ; XIV, 247 : Arist. Nub. 1250. Oixc av q&
flpe'^snts avftpa^nrrTie e6i\oi re (cat 8 v v a t r o aov aVepjWti^ tovs
(mxeipovvras aBilcetp—frr-rwbllld you not support anlflmfnivhosJtoula
be both ^willing TmcTable, &c. ? Xen. Mem. II, 9, 2. Yleivwv (pdyoi av
ondre /3ov\oito, when he is hungry, he would eat ivhenever he might
wish (like « irore @ov\oito). lb. II, 1, 18. So Mem. I, 5, 4 ; I, 7,
3 ; IV, 2, 20. IIcos ovv av eldelrjs nep\ rovrov tov Trpdyparos, ov nav-
Tcmaacv c'ineipos e'ins ; how then could you know about that thing of
which you had no experience at all? Plat. Men. 92 C. *Ap' av
tjyoio ravra o~a eivat, a cot e^eirj koi anoddadai (cat dovvai Kal #i'trat
otcd fiovXoto detbv; Id. Eutbyd. 302 A. Tt av iraBeiv (dvvairo), 6
pfj ko.1 v(p' avTov iraBoi; what could he suffer, unless he should suffer
it also from himself? (i. e. el pi) ndSoi). Plat. Lys. 214 E. *6 8e
pfj dyandrj, ov$' av cptAoi (l. e. ei rt pi) dyancorj, ouS' av (piXoi. tovto).
lb. 215 B. "Ocrco be Trpea^vrepos yiyvoiro, paWov del do~nd£oiTO
av (xprjpara), the older he should grow, the more he would always cling
to it (i. e. e'i ti wpealivrepos yiyvoixo, too~co pdWov aand^oiro av) .
Plat. Rep. VIII, 549 B So III, 412 D; VIII, 557 B. ^aopev
prjbenore prjhev av pei£ov pr)8i eXarrov yeveaBai, eco? 'laov e'ir) avrb
eavTW, so long as it should remain equal to itself. Plat. Theaet.
155 A. So tfovXoiprjvjie , . . . a> prj ein, Od. X1^489.

Et de /3ouXoio reov (piXcov^rtt^^Tfpofpe^raadai (more anobripotrjS
empeXeladai Tcaf crufV, ri av 7rotoir]S ; Xen. Mem. II, 3, 12. Eixdrcor
av (cat 7rapa 6ea>v npaKTiKcorepos e'ir], oarty pr) <mdre ev dnopois e'ir) rare
KoXaicevoi, dXX' ore ra cipiara tt parrot Tore paXiara t<ov 8ea>v
pe pvaro. Id. Cyr. I, 6, 3. 'Qs drrdXoiTo cat aXXos, o rtr Toiaurd
ye pe'Coi, 0 that any other man might likewise perish who should do
the like (i. e. et rts rouivra pV£ot). Od. I, 47. 'Eyiyvvo-ice Be'iv tovv
v7rr/peVaf tovto do-Kelv, coy ndvra vopi£oiev Trpeneiv avrols Trpdrreiv oaa
6 ap^coi/ ty po (tt otto t . Xex. Cyr. II, 1, 31.

Remark. All these examples fall also under the general rule for
assimilation, § 64, 1.

§ 69. A conditional relative sentence (like a pro-
tasis, § 51) may express a general supposition. This
happens when the verb of the antecedent clause denotes
a customary or repeated action or a general truth, whih
the relative clause refers indefinitely to any one of a
series or class of acts, and not to a definite act or a
definite series of acts.

13C RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENXES. [§ 62.

Here the Subjunctive with 09 av, orav, &c. is used
after primary tenses, and the Optative (without av)
after secondary tenses. E. g.

Ex&pbs yap pot Ke'tvos opms 'Atdao irvXinaiv, ©y \ erepov pev Kfvdrj
e'vl qbpealv, dXXo 8e e it 77 , for that man (i e. any man) is hated by me
like the very gates of Hades, who conceals one thing in his mind and
speaks another. II. IX, 312. Nep(aampai ye pev ovbev kXclUiv os k«
ddvjjcri (Bpormv teal irorpov (vlang , / am never at all indignant at
weeping for any mortal who may die, &c. Od. IV, 195. Kai yap avp-
pa%dv tovtois e'deXovotv drravres, ovs av 6pm at napeaKevaapevovs, for
all men <re {always) willing to be allies to those whom they see prepared.
Dem. Phii. I, 42, 1. Kalnep rmv dvQpmixmv, iv m pev av n oXe pma t,
tov irapoi'Ta (jroXepov) del peytarov Kptvdvrmv, although men always
consider the present war the greatest, so long as they are engaged in it.
ThuC. I, 21. Tlopevovrai re yap ai dyeXat rj dv avrds ei diivmatv o't
vope'ts, vepovrat re )(mpia e'(p dnoia av avrds e(p tma iv , aTre\ovTai re
&}v a v avrds arte ipy mat' Kai rots Kapno'ts e'mat roiis vopeas \pr)a6ai
ovrms ortms av avrol (iovX mvrat' dv&pmnot 8e (it ovhevas ndXXov
avviaravrai n eirl tovtovs ovs dv a'iadmvrat tip^etv avrmv (nt^etpovv-
raj. Xex. Cyr. I, 1, 2. Nopt£m irpoardrov epyov eivat otov 8et, 6s
&v opmv rovs (piXovs e^anarmpevovs ph eTTtrperrrj, i. e. such as one ought
always to be, who, &c. Id. Hell. II, 3, 51. Kara(pp6vnais 8e (eyyi-
yverat), os av Ka\ yvmprj 7T tare vn raw evavrimv npue^etv, 6 r)piv vnap-
X(t. Tiiuc. II, 62. (Here the o refers to all that precedes, as a
definite antecedent.)

Ov pev yap pet£ov kX(os dvepos, b(ppa k' erjatv, n o rt noaaiv r*
pe£j) Kai xfpo-ii'. Od. VIII, 147. ("Oqbpa k eyatv, so long as he
In'es.) (Q(oiis) rraparpmircba dvOpmnot Xtaaopevot, ore Ke'v tis vrre p-
firjr) Ka\ dpdprp. H. IX, 500. "Hptav yap f dp(Tr)s dnoaivvrai
evpvona 7.(vs dvepos, (vr dv ptv Kara 8ovXiov fjpap eXn a iv . Od.
XVII, 322. <&tXeet 8e koos irpoanpaivetv, evr dv peXXij peydXa koku
t} 7ro'Xt r) edvet eaeaBat. Hdt. VI, 27. Qevyovot yap rot ^ot Opaaeis,
orav 7t(Xas fjbn tov ' Kthnv da op mat roii /3t'ou. SOPH. Ant. 580.
UvW dv 8' o'Ikoi yevmvrat, dpmatv ovk dvaaxerd. ARIST. Pac.
1179. E7rftSaj/ 8( f] eKCpopd rj, Xdpvaicas dyovatv dpa£at. THUC
H, 34. EnetBdv 8e Kpv^r ma t yrj, dvhp fjpnpe'vos into rrjs iroXems,
os av yvmprj re 8oktj pn d£vveros eivat, X«yei en avro'ts enatvov to*
Trpe'novTa. Ibid. Ecos dv am^nrat to a<a(pos. Tore \pr] TvpoQvpovi
eivat' enei8dv 8e rj OdXaTTa vnepaxjl, pdratos rj aTrov8rj. Dem.
PhiL III, 128, 22. So ear av 8eiama'tv, Xex. Mem. Ill, 5, 6.

Ov rtva yap TteaKov eTTf^Qovlmv dvdpammv, ov kokov ov8e pev e'aBXdv,
5 r'ts acpeas eiaacp Ikoito , i. e. they were never in the habit of honor-
ing any one who came to them. Od. XXII, 414. Kai ovs pev i'Soi
tvTaKTms Kai atmnfj lovras, TrpoaeXavvmv avrois rives re eiev -qprnra. Kai
e'nel nvdotro enrjvet. Xen. Cyr. V, 3. 55. (Here tjpmra and (itj]v(i
denote the habit of Cyrus.) Kai rois pev'Aonvaluts rjv^ero to vavrtKot
and tj]s 8andvr)s i)v (Ketvot £v p(p epote v , avrol 8e, 6it6t( drr oot aitv ,
dnaodoKevot kcu diretpot es tov jroXepov nadiaravTO, and the Athenian

62.] CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCES. 131

navy continued to increase from the money which these contributed , and
they, whenever they revolt ■<!, always found themselves unprepared and
inexperienced for war. Thuc. I, 99.

'E7rt Molpios ftaaiXeos, okccs e'Xtfoi 6 irorauos en oktoj Trij^ear,
ap&fo-Ke A'iyvTTT.-' ttjv evepBe Mtuqjios, i. e. whenever the river rose.
HdT. II, 13. Tuf 8e yoCi/ tov eiKpopeouevov, okcos jlvoito vv£, it
rbv Tiypiv e£e(p6peoi>, l. e. they carried it away every night. Id. II.
150. Ol tt (Kapes), o/ccoy Mivas deoiro, eirXrjpovv oi rds ve'as- Id.
I, 171. 'ETreiBrj de av o i%Q e in , elayeiuev napa tov Saxpdrr), 1. e.
each morning, when the prison was opened, &c. Plat. Phaed. 59 D.
Ore e£a tov beivov y evoivro , ttoXXoi clvtov direXenrov , many (always')
left him, when they were out of danger. Xkn. An. II, 6, 12. (If
eyevovro had been used, the whole sentence would refer to a particu-
lar case in which many left him.)

Remark. The gnomic Aorist, and the other gnomic and
iterative tenses of § 30, can be used in the antecedent clause of
these general propositions. The gnomic Aorist, as usual, is a
primary tense. (See § 32, 2.) E. g.

"Or Ke deois entire idnrai, udXa r enXvov avrov, whoever obeys
the Gods, to him they are ready to listen. II. I, 218. "Orav tis &a-rrep
ovtos lo~\vcrr] , 17 npuiTr) irp6(paais dnavra dve^airio'e KuloieXv
aev. Dem. 01. II, 20, 27. 'Orrore TvpocrfSktyei.e rivets twv ev rdis
rd^eo-i, elnev av, « avSpes, kt.X., i. e. he used to say, &C. Xen.
Cyr. VII, 1, 10. (See § 30, 2.) Ovt ciXXore nvwore irpos X^PIV
flkofinv Xeyeiv, o n av p.f] /cal avvoiaeiv neneiap-evos a>, 1 have never on
other occasions preferred to say anything in order to please, unless I
have been convinced that it would also be for your advantage. Dem.
Phil. I, 54, 27. (Here elXounv is used in a sense approaching that
of the gnomic Aorist, so as to be followed by a Subjunctive. Sea
§ 30, 1, N. 1.)

Note 1. The Indicative is sometimes used instead of the
Subjunctive and Optative in relative sentences of this class.
(See § 51, N. 3.) Here the speaker refers to one of the cases
in which the event in question is liable to occur, as if it were
the only case, instead of referring indefinitely to all possible
cases alike (as when the Subjunctive or Optative is used).
This use of the Indicative occurs especially after the indefinite
relative oo-ns ; as the idea of indefiniteness, which is usually
expressed by the Subjunctive or Optative, is here sufficient])'
expressed by the relative itself. E. g.

'Eydpos yap p.01 nelvos 6po)$ AiSao nvXyatv
Tiyverat, bs irevir) eiKcof dnarrjXia ftd£ti. Od. XIV, 15&
*/ompare this with the 'first example (II. IX, 312) under § 6?

132 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§62

Epo\ yap octtis iracrav evdvvmv irokiv
M») ra>i> dpiorajv clttt erai fiovXtvpaTcov,

AAA eK (pufiov tov ykaHTcrav iyKkeicras i'^ei,

KaKMTTos elvai vvv re Kal nciXai doKei '

Kal pei^ov octtis dvrl ttjs aiiTov ndrpas

&i\ov rofii£ei, tovtov ovbapov Ae'yco. SOPH. Ant. 178.

(Here we might have had 6s av .... prj am^rai., dXX' .... e^j, and
6s av vopl£r], without any essential difference in meaning.)

Oinves npbs tcis ^vpcpopds yvuprj pev rjicicrTa \vn ov vt at , epyco be
fiaXi-rra avre %ov tr iv , ovtol Kal TroXecov ku\ IBiwtwv KpdricrToi eiaiv.
Tiiuc. II, 64. So in fhe same chapter, octtis Xapfidvet. "EOanrov
tov avTov rpoTTov onoaovs (TreXapfiavev f) crrpaTid, they con-
tinued to bury in the same way as many as the army took up. Xen.
An. VI, 5, 6. (Here eTrikapfidvoi might have been used.) "Oo-ns

0 a(p ikv e ito Ttoi/ Trapa ftacriXeos npos aiiTov, iravras dneirepireTO.
lb. I, 1, 5. Ottov be ^iAos cnrdvios irdvv e'tn, avrus b' e bvvaro irapa-
0~Kevdcracr8ai, bianepnav tVceAeve tovs (piXovs Ittttois ipfidWfiv tovtov.
lb. I, 9, 27. (In the last two examples there is some Ms. authority
for the more regular dcpiKvolTo and dvvairo.) See also An. I, 9, 13.

All these examples fall under the first class of conditional relative
sentences, § 61, 1. So in common protasis, § 51, N. 3.

Note 2. The Greek generally uses the Indicative in relative
clauses depending on general negative sentences, where in Latin a
Subjunctive is more common. E. g.

Ilap epol be ovbels pio~8o(pope~i, octtis pr) iKavos io~Tiv "era wovelv epoi.

1 e. no one who is not able (no one unless he is able), nemo qui non
pjssit. Xen. Hell. VI, 1. 5. These sentences are regular protases,
and belong under the rule of § 61, 1. (See Note 1.)

Note 3. (a.) In Homer, similes and comparisons are often
expressed by the Subjunctive after cos, coy re, cos ore, cos os
(seldom, is av, &c), where we should expect the Present In-
dicative, which sometimes occurs. Besides the singular use of
the Subjunctive in these expressions, the omission of av or ne is
especially to be noticed. (See § 63, 1.) E. g.

Qs be yvvr) KXaincri, <pl\ov tt6o~lv dpcpnrecrovcra,
Os re erjs npocrdev noXios Xacoi/ re tt e cr p criv,
Qs Obvaevs eXeeivbv inr dcppvcri baKpvov eiftev,
Ulysses wept as a ivi/e weeps, &c. Od. VIH, 523-531.
Sis b ot oTrcopivos Boperjs <po pi rjo~ iv aicdvdas
Ap nebiov, nvKival be jrpos dXXrjXrjcriv e'xovrai,
Qr Ttjv ap jreXayos c'ivepoi cpepov evda Kal ev8a. Od. V, 328.
12s b or av aar panrrj 7rocris "Hp^y ljvKopoio, ....
*Qs irvKLV iv CTTi]6eao-i,v dveo-Tevax^C ' Ayapepvcov. II. X, 5-9.
Ot b\ cos t dfinrrfpes evavrioi dXXrjXoLaiv oy p*ov eXavvcoatv, col

§ G3, 2.] CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCES. 133

Tpaes Kai 'Amatol eV dXXr)Xoio~i 8opovres 8rjovv. H. XI, 67—71. See
also II. XII, 167-1713.

(6.) In many cases the Subjunctive or the Present Indica-
tive is followed by the gnomic Aorist in the same simile, the
Aorist being merely a more vivid form of expression than the
others. (See § 30, 1, Notes 2 and 3.) E. g.

Qy 5 ore Kanvbs lav els ovpavov evpvv lunrai

Ao~reos ai8opevoio, 8eav 8e e prjvis dvrJKev,
Ilao-i 8' e'8r]K€ irovov, r oXXoiai 8e Kr)8e' e'(piJK(v,
*Qs 'A^tXevs Tpaecro-i irovov Ka\ Krj8e' i'drjKcv. II. XXI, 522.

O 8* ev koi'[t)0~i xa/iai ntaev, aXyeipos as,

H pa t ev elapevfj eXeos peydXoio necpvKT)

Kettjf arap re oi o£oi eir aKpoTarrj n e<p vac iv
Tr]v pev 8 dpparonnybs dvqp aWavi o~i8rjpa>

E£f rap', ofppa ltvv Kap\j/i] irepiKaXXei 8i(ppu>'

H pev r a^optvrj k eir at irorapolo trap oydas'
To'iov up Av8epi8nv ^ipoeicriov e£evdpi£ev
A'ias dioyevrjs. II. IV, 482.

§ 63. 1. (a.) In Homer, the relatives (like el) often take
the Subjunctive without av or w, the sense being apparently the
same as when av is used. (§ 50, 1, N. 2.) E. g.

Orri pdX ov drjvaios, os ddavdroicri pd)(r)Tat. H. V, 407.
'Avdpwnovs ((pnpq, ko\ tivvtoi os ris apdpTn- Od. XIII, 214.
Ztvs 8 avros vepei oXfiov 'OXvpmos dvdpanoiatv,
Eo-8Xo'is rj8e Ka/coicrti/, on-ws e 8eXn a iv , eKaara. Od. VI, 188.

v prjv aoi ttots icrov e^a yepas, ottitot A\aioi
Tpaav e xirep crcocr' evvaiopevov irroXiedpov. II. I, 163.
Ov pev yap nore (prjcn kokov ireio~eo~8ai onlaaa,
0<pp' dperfjv nape \ao- 1 8eu\ /cat yovvar 6 pa pr) , I [

so long as the Gods shall supply valor, &c. Od. XVIII. 132. I

(b.) The same omission of &v is not uncommon in the Attio
poets ; and even in prose a few exceptional cases occur, if we
follow the Mss. (§ 50, 1, N. 3). E. g.

Tepovra 8' 6p8ovv (pXavpov, bs ve'os near). SOPH. O. 0. 395. Ta>»

8e irnpovav pdXtara Xvrrova at (pavaa' avdaiperot. Id. O. T. 1^31.

Toifrt yap pyre norea pfjre rei\ea ft eKTianeva, .... k<os oiir. av ('irjaav

ovtol apaxoi; HnT. IV, 46. (S5e~§ 63, 4, a.) 'En-t^ajpiov ov rjp'iv

\ ov pev fipa)(fls dpKwcri pfj noXXo'is xpf;o-#cu, l"' beinr/ our national habit

j not to use many words where few suffice. Tiiua IV, 1 7. (Yet the

J sentence continues, nXeioai 8e ev a av Katpbs^j], k.t.\.) See~§66,4,N.

2. The adverb av is sometimes used with the Optative or
Indicative in conditional relative clauses, when the relative

134 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ 63, 2

clause is itself an apodosis, with a protasis expressed or im-
plied. In Homer ne with the Optative sometimes occurs where
there is no apodosis, as in common protasis (See § 50, 2,
I N. 2, a, b.) E. g.

*E£ Stv av Tts €v Xeymv hiafiaXXot, i< tovtwv aiirovs ird(T(crdat yi^S,
(?<t>n), he said that they would form their opinion upon any slanders #>**
which any good speaker might (if he pleased) chance to utter. Thuc. &r
VII, 48. But in Od. JL_54^£_ice_^^8ot7 w k edeXoi, that he
might give her to any one he pleased, m K~lBeXdi does not differ from
the ordinary w e'6iXoi = cl tivi (SeXot. In Dem. Phil. I, 41, 3, olov
hv fiovXoio~6e is merely a conjecturaTemendatiou for olov av /3ov-
Xno-dt, which is a regular example illustrating § 62. "Sjjnxjl A». \ a
vue'is els Tavrnv ttjv ra^iv KaTfcrrqcraTe, qvtos tcov 'uuav a'lrios r\v av
KdxSsp-vmoirfrc£-yafirovTos, any one soever whom you might have ap- \ )
pothlelT~(ifybu7iad~~ckosen) to this post would have been the cause of

, as great calamities as this man has been. Dem. F. L. 350, 3. (With-

j out the av after ovriva, this would havj been a regular example
under § 61, 2, ovriva KaTco-Ti)o-aTe being equivalent to u two aXXov

\ Kareo-rTjo-are, if you had appointed any one else (which you did not do).
With the av, it is itself an apodosis with a suppressed protasis ; un-

\ less we can suppose that the av was used, like <k in the Homeric ex-
ample, without affecting the sense. See § 49, 2, N. 4.)

3. A conditional relative clause, like a common protasis,
may depend upon an Infinitive or Participle (with or without
av), or upon a final clause. See the last three examples under
§ 61, 3. (Compare § 53 ; § 55, 2.)

4. The conditional relative clause may have a form different
from that of its apodosis. This happens under the same cir-
cumstances as in common protasis. (See § 54.)

(a.) An Indicative or Subjunctive in the relative clause may de-
pend upon an Optative with av in the apodosis, either when the
expressed apodosis belongs to an implied protasis (§ 54, 1, a), or
when the Optative with av is considered a primary tense, from its
resemblance in sense to the Future Indicative (54, 1, b). See also
§34,1,6. E.g.

Ovkovv kou to vyialveiv K.a\ to voo-elv, orav dyadov tivos airia yl-
yvrjTai, dyada av ea), i. e. when they prove to be the causes of any good,
they would be good things (if we should accept your doctrine). Xen.
Mem. IV, 2. 32. So Mem. n, 2, 3 ; and Plat. Pep. II, 379 B.
'Eyd> Se Tavrnv uev ttjv tipTjvrjv, eas av eis 'Adrjvaia>v Xe inrjTai, ov8(-
hot av o-vp.f$ovXtvo~aip.i Troirjaaadai tt} noXei, I would never advise the
city to make this peace, so long as a single Athenian shall be left. Dkm.
F. L. 345, 14. (Here «W Xe'moiro, so long as one should be left,
would be more regular) So Arist. Nub. 1151 ; Soph. El. 697.

§ 64, l."J CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCES. 135

(6.) The Optative (without av) in the relative clause occasionally
depends upon a primary tense in the apodosis. This may arise from
the slight distinction between the Subjunctive and Optative in such
sentences (§ 54, 2, a) ; as in II XIII, 317, ami ol eaaeirat vtjas eVi-
nptjaai, ore pr) avros ye Kpovi&v e p(3<iXoi aldopevov daXuv vtjeaai, it will
be a hard task for him, unless the son of Kronos should hurl, &c.
(More regularly, 6Ye kc pi) epfidXg , unless he shall hurl, &c.)

The Optative in the Relative clause sometimes depends on a
verb of necessity, obligation, propriety, possibility, &c. with an Infini-
tive, the two forming an expression that is nearly equivalent in sense
to an Optative with dv, which would be expected in their place
(§64,2,6). E.g.

'AXX' bv TToKts or jj crete, rovSe ^pq kXvciv, we should obey any one
whom the state appoints {if the state should appoint any one, toe ought
to obey him). Soph. Ant. 666. (Xpf) kXvciv is followed by the
Optative from its resemblance in sense to cWaiW av kXvoi res.)
AXXd rov pev avrov \cyetv a pi) aacpois eifteir) (peideadai del, i. e. we
ought to abstain, &c. ; like apeidoiro av ns. Xen. Cyr. I, 6, 1 D. Ovs
8e TrotnoraaQai ris fiovXoir o avvepyovs npoBvpovs, ruvrov* Tavrdnaaiv
epoiye Bo/cel dyadols 6t)partov elvai. lb. II, 4. 10. (Here 8t)pariov
civai = dnpav deiv.) 'Ynepopdv ov dvvarov lipwv dvdp'i 6s el dc it) Kupiovs
ovras o rt (iovXea8e avrm xpija6ai. Id. Hell. V II, 3, 7.

5. The Indicative is generally used in Greek (as in Latin)

in parenthetical relative clauses, like 5 n nor iariv. whatever it

is (quidquid est), oarts nor ear'tv (or carat), &C. E. g.

Zevs, oarts nor earlv, el rod* avra> (piXov KeKXtjpevco, rovro vtv
npoaewenco, Zeus, whoever he may be, &c. Aesch. Again. 160.
AovXevopev 6eols, 6 rt nor elalv deo't. Eur. Orest. 418.

The Subjunctive, however, sometimes occurs ; in which case the
expression belongs under § 62 or § 61, 3 : as in Aeschin. Tim. § 127,
dXX* 6 npoaa^rdpevos avrtov nal naparv^iov, oarts av y, Xoyov nape %ft.
So Dem. Phil. I, 47, 24.

Assimilation in Dependent Relative Clauses.

§ 64. 1. When a conditional relative clause referring to
the future depends on a Subjunctive or Optative referring to
the future, it regularly takes by assimilation the same mood
with its leading verb. Such a leading verb may be in pro-
tasis or apodosis, in another conditional relative clause, in
the expression of a wish (§ 82), or in a final clause. E. g.

'Edv rives o! av bvwvrat rovro noicoai, <aXa>s e£ei, if any who shall
be able do this, it wilt be well. Ei rives ol bvvatvro rovro noiolev,
koXcu? av exot, if any who should be able should do this, it would 'a

\

136 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ 64, 1.

well. EWe iravrts oi bvvaivro tovto noiolev, 0 that all who may be
able would do this. (Here the principle of assimilation makes ol
bvvaivro alter an Optative preferable to oi av bvvwvrai, which would
express the same idea.) So in Latin: Si absurde canat is qui se
haberi velil musicum, turpior sit. — Sic injurias fortunae quas i'erre
nequeas defugiendo relinquas.
For examples see § 61, 3 and 4.

2. When a conditional relative clause depends on a secondary
tense of the Indicative implying the non-fulfilment of a condi-
tion, it regularly takes a secondary tense of the Indicative by
assimilation. The leading Indicative may be in protasis or
apodosis (§ 49, 2), in another conditional relative clause
(§ 61, 2), in an expression of a wish (§ 83), or in a final clause
<>; 44, 3). E. g.

Ei' rives ol ebvvavTo tovto enpa^av, K<xka>s av eo-^ev, if any who had
been able had done thin, it would have been well. EWe irdvres ol i b v -
vavTo tovto eirpa^av, 0 that all who had been able had done this. So
in Latin : Nam si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset,
neminem tu quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes.

Remark 1. It will be seen that tliis principle of assimilation

accounts for the Indicative and Optative in a conditional relative

sentence, which have been already explained by the analogy of the

ordinary forms of protasis. (See § 61, 2 and 4.) In fact, wherever

i this assimilation occurs, the relative clause stands as a protasis to its

' antecedent clause, although the latter may be itself a protasis to

I another apodosis. (See § 34.) Occasionally this principle is dis-

[[regarded, so that a Subjunctive depends on an Optative. (See the

('examples under § 34, 1, b, and § 63, 4, a.)

Remark 2. The Indicative in the construction of § 61, 1, refer-
ring simply to the present or past, cannot be affected by assimila-
tion, as that would change its time. E. g.

MtjT ifioi 7vaptaTLos yevoiro, pfjT1 'iaov (ppovwv, os Tab" epbei (l. e
ci tis Tab' epbei). Soph. Ant. 372.

Note 1. The principle of § 64 applies only to conditional rela
tive clauses. If the relative refers to a definite antecedent, so that
its verb denotes a fact and not a supposition, the principle of assimi-
lation does not apply, and the Indicative (or any other construction
required by the sense, § 59, N. 1) is used. E. g.

Ei Tmv iro\iT<ov oicri vvv irt.o~Tevop.fv, tovtois cnno~TT)o~aip.ev, oil
b* ov xpmpetia, tovtoigi xpr)o~aipea6a, a&deirjpev av. AuiST. Ran.
1446. E'iB' rada bvvarbs bpav oaov Tvpodvpoa el, 0 that thou couldsl
do as much as thou art eager to do. Eur. Heracl. 731. (If the Im-
perfect had been used by assimilation, the meaning would be at
*iuch as thou wert (or migktcst be) eager to do.)

§ 66, 1.] ASSIMILATION. — Ae IN APODOS1S. 137

Note 2. Conditional relative clauses depending on a Sub-
junctive or Optative in a general supposition (§ 51, § 62)
are generally assimilated to the Subjunctive or Optative ; but
sometimes they take the Indicative on the principle of § 62,
Note 1. E. g.

OvS , enei8av hv av rt p in rat Kiipios yevr/rai, ra> Trpo86rrj o-vpftovXa
nepl rmv Xonrmv 'in \pr)Tai. Dem. Cor. 241, 15. See Plat. Rep. |
VI, 508 C and D; Charm. 164 B. 'O he rore pdXiara e'xaipev, onort 1
Tu^Lcrra rv^ovras hv deoivro anonepnot. Xen. Ages. IX, 2.

AiTia pev yap eariv, orav nj -*\nXu> xpi&dpevos Xdy<o pr) Trapdo-xnrat
tticttiv hv Xeyei, eXeyxos 8e, orav hv av e'lrrv tis Kal rdXnOes opov
deign- Dem. Androt. 600, 5. (Here hv Xiyei and hv av e'lnn are
nearly equivalent.) 'EicaXet 8e Kal eripa Snore rivds i'Soi rotovrov
noirjcravras o navras eftovXero noieiv. Xex. Cyr. II, 1, 30. (Here
fiovXoiro for ej3ovXero would have corresponded to Seoivro in the
second example quoted.)

Remark. The conjunction 8e is occasionally used to intro-
duce the clause on which a relative depends. Its force here is
the same as in apodosis. (See § 57.) E. g.

Oir) nep <pvXXoiv yevef), roin 8e Kal dv8phv- H. VI, 146. 'En-fi re 6
TroXepot Karearn, 6 8e (paiverai Ka\ e'v rovrco irpoyvovs rfjv 8vvaptv, and
when the war broke out, (then) lie appears, &c. Thuc. H, 65. Mt'^pt
pev ovv ol rot-oral eixov re ra fieXn auro'ts Kal oioi re fjaav xpijcOai, ol
8 e avre'ixovi so l°nQ °-S their archers both had their arrows and were
able to use them, they held out. Id. Ill, 98. "Qo-nep ol ojrX'irai, ovrco
8e Kal ol ireXrao-raL Xen. Cyr. VIII, 5, 12. So (paivovrai 8i, Thuc.
I, 11 ; and eyiyvovro be, AESCHIN. Cor. § 69.

Relative Clauses expressing a Purpose, Result, &c.

§ 65. 1. The relative is used with the Future In-
dicative to denote a purpose or object. E. g.

Upeafielav 8e nepwetv, rjris ravr epel Kal wapearai rols npa-
ypaaiv, and to send an embassy to say these things, and to be present a',
the transaction. Dem. 01. I, 10, 1. <&ijpl 817 8elv rjpas irpos Qerra
Xovs Trpecrpeiav nip-new, tj rovs pev 8i8d!;ei ravra, rovs 8e napo
^ui/€t. lb. H, 21, 10. "Edo£e rh 617/xw rpu'iKovra civhpas iXeadai, 01
rovs rrarpiovs vopovs gvyypd^rovai, ku6 ovs ttoXit evo~ ova 1 •
Xen. Hell. H, 3, 2. Ov yap eari poi xphllaTa" ondQev i kt i a a> , /or I
have no money to pay thejine with. Plat. ApoL 37 C.

138 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ 65, 1.

The antecedent of the relative, in this case, may be either definite
or indefinite ; but the negative particle is regularly p.r), as in final
clauses (§ 43, N. 2).

Remark. "Ona>s as a relative is sometimes used in this construc-
tion in a way which illustrates its use as a final particle. (See § 45,
Item.) E. g.

Iloiee Be ovto> owns rav oS>v eVSfijcrei pnhkv, and act SO that there
shall be nothing wanting on your part ; lit. act in that way by which,
&C. Hdt. VII, 18. To ovtws e7rio~Tao~&at. avdpanrcav aXXa>v npoaTartv
tiv on cos e£ovo~i jravra to. eVir^Seia, . . . tovto Oavpaarou e(paivtro,
i. e. in such a way that they shall have, &c. Xen. Cyr. I, 6, 7. So
Cyr. II, 4, 81.

Note. 1 . (a.) The Future Indicative is the only form regularly
used in prose after the relative in this sense. It is retained even
after secondary tenses, seldom being changed to the Future Opta-
tive, which would here be expected by § 31, 2, and by the analogy
of clauses with oncos (§ 45). The Future Optative, however, is
found in Soph. O. T. 796, e(pevyov i'v6a pfjTroT o^ o i pnv 6vei8r], —
and probably in Plat. Rep. Ill, 416 C, (pain av nj 8eiv ko.1 ras oIkt]-
(Tfis Kai rrjv aXXrjv ova-lav roiavrnv avrois irapao~iccvdo~ao-dai, ijris p-rjTt
tovs (pvXaKas o>s dpio-rovs eivai navaoi avroi/s, KaKovpyeiu re pfi
ctt apol 7rep\ roi/s aXXovs TroXiras.

(b.) When, however, this Future is quoted indirectly after a past
tense, or depends upon a clause expressing a past purpose (which
is equivalent to standing in indirect discourse, § 26, N. 1), it is
sometimes changed to the Future Optative, like any other Future
Indicative. E. g.

EaKoiret onus ecrorro avrut oo~ris £a>vra re yn por po(pn cot Ka\

reXiVTijaavra ddyj/oi. avrov. Isae. de. Menecl. Her. § 10. Alpedevrts

icp (o re i^vyypatyai vopovs, Kaff ovo-Tivas rroXiTtvo-oiuro, having

A been chosen with the condition that they should compile the laws by which

ft they were to govern. Xen. Hell. H, 3, 11. (This is a sort of indirect

quotation of the sentence which appears in its direct form in Hell.

^ H, 3, 2, the example under § 65, 1.)

Note 2. In Homer, the Future Indicative is sometimes used

in this sense ; as in Od. XIV, 333, enapreas, o! S^ piv irip.y^ov-

o-iv. Sometimes the Optative with ice, as an apodosis, takes

the place of the Future ; as*in Od. IV, 167, aXXoi ol kcv dXdX-

kouv. The more common Epic construction is, however, the

Subjunctive (generally with k£ joined to the relative) after

primary tenses, and the Optative (Present or Aorist, never

Future), without *<•', after secondary tenses. E. g.

EX*or 8 Inrfjp eVi^iacro-erai, tjo' tni6r)(ret
&dpp.a\, a. Ktv TTavo-rjo-i ueXaivdw odvvdav. H. IV, 191.

§ 65, I.J RELATIVE CLAUSES EXPRESSING A PUR1 OSE. 139

AXX ayere, kXtjtovs orpvvopev, ol kc Ta^tcrTa

EXOcocr' f's Kki(jlrjv Ilr]Xt]id8fco 'AxtXfyos. II. IX, 165.

ExSore, koi Tiprjv diroTivipev rjv tiv eoinev,
"H re /cat ioo-opivoicri per adavaroicri neXnTai. H. HI, 459.

AyyeXof tjkqv, 6s ayyei'Xete yvvaiKi. 0(1. XV, 458.
Udtrrnvev d dva nvpyvv 'A^aiwi/, ei' tiv idoiTP

Hyepovcov, os t'is ol dprjv irdpoicTiv dpvvai. H. XII, 332.

Remark. It will be noticed that the earlier Greek here agreei
with the Latin (in using the Subjunctive and Optative), while the
Attic Greek differs from the Latin by using the more vivid Future
Indicative.

Note 3. (a.) The Attic Greek allows the Subjunctive in such
phrases as e%et S n elrnj, he has something to say ; where the irregu-
larity seems to be caused by the analogy of the common expression
ovk i'%ei oil (or ti) 617777, equivalent to ovk oi8ev 6 tl eiirv, he knows
not what he shall say, which contains an indirect question (§ 71).
E.g.

Toiovtov IBos irapeb'oo'av, wore . . . (KaTepovs i'xeiv e^>' ols (piXon-
an 6 coo- iv, that both may have things in which they may glory. Isoc.
Pan. p. 49 C. § 44. (Here there is no indirect question, for the
meaning is not that they may know in what they are to glory. See
note added to Felton's Isocrates, p. 135.) Ovdev 'c-'ti Stoio-ei avrco,
idv povov fjfji otco diaXeynrai, if only he shall have some one to talk
with. Plat. Symp. 194 D. Tots peXXovcriv egeiv o ti elacpe pa a iv .
Xen. Oecon. VII, 20. (Compare diropels o ti Xtyjjs and evirope'is \
o ti Xtyns in the same sentence, Plat. Ion. 535 B.)

(«.) The Present or Aorist Optative very rarely occurs in Attic
Greek after a past tense, but more frequently after another Opta-
tive. E. g.

Avhpa ovbev evroirop (6pa>v), ov)( octtis a p Keaetev , ovb" oorts
vocrov KapvovTi o-vXXdftoiTo , i. e. when I saw no one there to assist
me, &c. Soph. Phil. 281. Tuvipov he iroinTrjv av ov% evpois en ^nrcov
av, octtis pijpa yewalov \anoi, i. e. a poet to speak a noble word. I
Arist. Ran. 96. (Yet in vs. 98 we have the regular Sorts <pdty£f /,
rut, depending on the same ovk av evpois.) So in Plat. Rep. Ill,
398 B, 6s pipolro koi Xeyoi, depending on xpa>pe6a av. T77 Tjpe-
T€pa noXei ovhev av evhei^airo toctovtov ovde noirjcreKv, v(p' ov Treiodev-
Tts rivds 'EXXtjvcov eKclva wpoeiade, i. e. nothing so great, that you ,,
would be persuaded by it to sacrifice any of the Greeks to him. Dem. f,
Phil. H, 67, 20. r

Note 4. '{2s as a relative, in the sense of by which (with an
antecedent like anything understood), is sometimes followed by an
Optative with av in apodosis, expressing a purpose or object. £. g.

'fis fi(v av euro ire hiKaiovs Xoyous <al Xeyoi/ros aXXoi' avveinre,
ape Lvov <biX'nrTOv napeaKevaade, cos h< KcoXvcraiT av eiceivov npav

I

140 RELATlva AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ 65, 1,

T€iv ravra e(f> a>v icrri vvv, TravTe\o~>s dpyS>s cxeTfi *• e" as '° means bg
which you could make just speeches, fyc, you are better prepared than
Philip ; but as to anything by which you could prevent him from doing
what he is now about, you are wholly inactive. Dem. Phil. II, 66, 15.
So at the end of the same oration, a>s S' av i^eraa 6e irj paXto-r'
aKpifiais, fir/ yevuiro, i. e. may nothing come upon us by which the truth
of what I say would be thoroughly tested.

Note 5. The relative with any tense of the Indicative, 01
even with the Optative and av, can be used to denote a result,
where wore might have been expected. (§ Go, 3). This
occurs chiefly after negatives, or interrogatives implying a
negative. E. g.

Tis ovto>s evwdns £o~t\v vpcov, ocrjjs dyvoel top eKfldev TroXepov
fcvpo rj^ovra, av upeXrjo-copev ; i. e. Wflb of you is so simple as not to
know, &c. ? Dem. 01. I, 13, 16. (Here aio-re ay voelv might have
been used.) T(? ovtco noppa ra>v ttoXltikuiv i)v Trpaypdroiv, octtjs^ovk
eyyur fjvay Kaadn yevtadai tcov avp<popa>v ; IsOC. Pan. pTT4 B.
§ 113. Tty ovtcos pqdvpos icrriv, ocrrt^-ou peraa^iv ftovKr) (rerat

Iravrns ttjs arparetas ; lb. p. 79 D. '§"'185. Oiidelt av ytvoiro ovtojs
dbapavrivos, os hj> peiveiev ev rij biKaioa-vvj] , no one would ever be-
come so adamantine that he would remain Jinn in justice. Plat. Rep. ^^_

'pv£~'*~ a. ^EqV a or eft art, on condition that, which is commonly
followed by the Infinitive (§ 99), sometimes takes the Future
Indicative. E. g.

E7Ti tovto) 8e Inre^laTapai rr/s dpx~)S, ecp* are vir ovStvos vpecov
ap£opai, 1 withdraw upon this condition, that I shall be ruled, &c.
Hdt. Ill, 83. Tovroiai 8 mv iriavvos emv Karrjyaye, eV are oi dnoyo-
voi avrov Ipotbavrai tu>v decov eaovrat. Hdt. VII, 153. Koi rt)v
Boioiriav etjeXinov 'A6nva.~i.oi ■naa-av, airovb'ds Troirjo'dnevoi t(p at tovs
avdpas Kopiovvrai. TlIUC. I, 113. Evve(3r]<rav ((f) core e^iaaiv
(< TleXoTTOvvfjaov imocmovboi <a\ prjdeTrore e it i /3 r) a o v r a t avrrjs. Id.
I, 103.

It will be noticed here (as in Note 1) that the Future Indicative
generally remains unchanged even after a secondary tense.

3. fla-Te (sometimes &>?), so that, so as, is usually
followed by the Infinitive. (See § 98.) But when the
action of the verb expressing the result after ware is
viewed chiefly as an independent fact, and not merely
as a result, the Indicative can be used.

The Infinitive is sometimes used even here, when the Indie-

§ 6i5, 4.] CAUSAL RELATIVE SENTENCES. 141

ative would seem more natural ; and it often makes quite as
little difference which of the two is used, as it does in English
whether we say some are so strange as not to be ashamed (ovratt
aronoi Stare ovk alaxvveadat, Deji. F. L. 439, 29), or some are SO
strange that they are not ashamed (ware ovk alaxvvovrai). Here,
although both expressions have the same general meaning, the
former expresses the result merely as a result, while the latter
expresses it also (and more distinctly) as an independent fact.
E.g.

Ovruts dyvoapovats exert, ware e'Xir i£er e avra xpnara yevrjaeaBai,
k.t.X. are you so senseless that you expect, &c. 1)em. 01. II, 25, 19.
(Here Stare iXni£eiv, so senseless as to expect, would merely make
the fact of their expecting less prominent.) Ovrats fjfiiv 8o<el travrds
a£ia elvai, Stare irdvres to KaraXmelv avra pdXiara <p e vyo pe v, so
that we all especially avoid, &c. Xen. Mem. II, 2, 3. Ovx fjKev Staff
oi EXXrjves e'(pp6vri£ov. Id. An. II, 3, 25. Els roiir dnXnarias
t)X6ov, Star ovk e £r) p Ke o~e v avrois e'xeiv rr/v Kara yrjv apx^v, dXXu
Kat rqv Kara GdXarrav bvvap.iv ovrats eiredvprjaav Xafieiv, ware rovs
rrvppdxovs rovs rjperepovs dcpi araaav . Isoc. Panath. p. 254 A.
§ 103. So alter its, § 98, 2, X. 1 : Ovrat 8fj ri KXeivrj e'yevero, its koi
rrdvres ol"EXXr]ves 'Podamios rovvopa e £«' padov, i. e. so that all the
Greeks came to know well the name of Rhodopis. Hdt. H, 135.

Note. As Stare in this construction has no effect whatever upon
the mood of the verb, it may be followed by any construction that
would be allowed in an independent sentence. (See § 59, N. 1.)
It may thus take an Optative or Indicative in apodosis with av, or
even an Imperative. E. g.

Qar ovk av avrov y vot p laai p. av e\ai8itv. Eur. Or. 379.
Tladitv pev dvre'bpoov, Star, el cppovitv enpaaaov, ov8 av it8' eyi-
yvopnv kokos. Soph. O. C. 271. Qvrjros 8' 'Ope'arns' Snare pi) Xlav
areve. Id. El. 1172. So with ov prj and the Subjunctive (89, 1) ;
ovrats eTnreOvprjKa aKovaai, Stare ■ • . oil prj aov dnoXe i(p d co . PLAT
Phaedr. 227 D.

4. The relative has sometimes a causal signification, being
equivalent to on, because, and a personal pronoun or demon-
strative word. The verb is in the Indicative, as in ordinary
causal sentences (§ 81, 1). E. g.

Qavpaarbv 7roieIy, os fjp'iv ov8ev 8i8as, you do a strange thing in
giving us nothing (like on av ov8ev St'Sco?). Xen. Mem. II, 7, 13.
Aogas dpa6rjs elvai, bs • . . e KeXeve, having seemed to be unlearned,
because he commanded, &c. Hdt. I, 33. Tije pnrepa epaKapi(ov, olatv
reKvutv eKvpnae (like on rolutv). Id. I, 31. Evdaipatv e<paivero, its
d8ea>s Ka\ yewaiots ereX evra , i. e. because he died so fearlessly and {
nobly {its being equivalent to on ovrats). Plat. Phaed. 58 E. f

.. .-». . 0.^ fit .. . n . r~r~u* . H-JLtcA )

142 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ G5, 4

TaXniVcopos «, o> prjre t9fot trarpatoi fieri prjS" if/ad, i. e. since you
have no ancestral Gods, &c. Plat. Euthyd. 302 B. (See Remark.)
Tlais av opQuis (pov KaTayiyi>a>o~KoiTe, a> to rrapdrrav npbs rovrovi p-r/Sep
o-vp-fiokainv io-Tiv; i e. since I have no contract at all, &c. Deji.
Apat. 903, 22. So Arist. Ran. 1459.

Remark. The ordinary negative particle of a causal relative
sentence is ov, as in the first example above. (See § 81.) But if a
conditional force is combined with the causal, p.rj can be used. Thus
in the last examples above, in which p-fj is used, w pr) 6eol dcriv
(besides its causal force) implies if, as it appears, you are without
ancestral Gods; and w pijbev tonv, if, as it appears, I have no con-
tract. The same combination of a causal and a conditional force is
seen in the Latin siquidem.

Temporal Particles signifying Until and Before

that.

A. "Ecar, "Eo-Tf, "Axpi, Me'^pi, Eicrd/ce, "Ocppa, Until.

§ 66. 1. When ea>?, eare, axPL> /jLeXPi' an(^ ocbpa,
until, refer to a definite point of past time, at which the
action of the verb actually took place, they take the
Indicative. E. g.

Ntj^oj' irakiv, ecu? eV^X^oi/ els norapov, I swam on again, until 1
came to a river. Od. VII, 280. IIiWi, ecos edeppnv' avrbv dpcpildcura
<p\6S- o'lvov. Eur. Ale. "08. Evveipov antovres, eore eVl rals CKrjvals
iyivovro. Xen. Cyr. VII, 5, 6. (So An. Ill, 4, 49.) Kai ravrn
tnoiovv p-^xP1 o'kotos iyevero. Id. An. IV, 2, 4. (So III, 4, 8.)
Qs /xec QprjiKas avSpas e7ra)^ero Tv8e'os vlos, ocppa fivcoSf/c' tit e <p ve v.
II. X, 488. Hpx' 'ip-ev-i o(f>P dcpiKovro Kara orparov, fj piv avvyei.
IL XIII, 329. *Hifj/, ocppa p-tya <r7r«os ueto. Od. V, 57.

Note 1. "A^P' ov and p-exP1 °^ are use(l m tne same sense as
axpc an(l P*XP1, -^' £•

Tu>v oe ravra irpai-dvrav a^pi ov oSe 6 Xdyo? iypdepero Tialcpovos
irptcrfivTaros coi> tcov d8e\(pa>v ttjv dpx^v fixf* Xen. Hell. VI, 4, 37.
Tovs "EWnvas aTreXvcraTO dovXeias, coot' eXevdepovs eivai p.ixPl °v
Ttakiv avrt\ avrovs KartBovXcocravTo. Plat. Menex. 215 A.

Note 2. Herodotus uses es o or ts ov, until, like eW, with the
Indicative. E. g.

'AireBfUwcrav nalba irarpos eKacrrov tovra, is o dneB(£av indcrai
nurds- Hdt. H, 143. 'Es ov Ai\r]S dvevpe. I, 67.

2. When thase particles refer to the future, they are

§ 66, 3.] 'E«v, ETC. WITH INDIC., SUBJ., AND OPTATIVE. 143

joined with av or «e and take the Subjunctive, if the
leading verb is primary. (See § 61, 3.) But if such
clauses depend upon an Optative in protasis or apodosis,
or in a wish, they usually take the Optative (without
av) by assimilation. (See § 61, 4.) E. g.

Maxfoofiai aldi pevcov, eicos Ke reXoj noXepoio ici^f/w, until I shall
come to an end of the war. II. Ill, 291. "Eco? 8' av ovv npos tov napov
tos eKpddjjs, ex eXnida. Soph. O. T. 834. 'Emaxes, ear av Ka\
to. \oina irpocrpddns, wait until you shall learn, &c. Aesch. Prom.
697. Meypt 8' av e'-yco tjkco, at V7rov8a\ pevovTcov. Xen. An. II, 3,
24. AXXa pev, o(ppa Ke rot pelundea otvov eveiKco, but wait, until 1
shall bring, &c. E. VI, 258. So S<pp' av n'owii/, 11. I, 509.

Kal to pev av i£ahf'«pouv, to 8e ndXiv eyypdcpoiev, ecos o ti pdXiara
avdpcoireia rjdn OeoqbiXrj notrjcre lav , until they should make, &c.
Plat. Rep. VI, 501 C. El be ndvv (nrov8d£oi (payeiv, e'inoip av oti
napd rats yvvai^iv icTTiv, ea>s irapaTeivaipi tovtov, i. e. / would
tell him this, until I put him to torture. Xen. Cyr. I, 3, 11.

Note 1. It will be seen by the examples, that the clause after
eios and other particles signifying until sometimes implies a future
purpose or object, the attainment of which is desired. When such a
sentence, implying a purpose or object which would have been
originally expressed by a Subjunctive, depends upon a past tense,
it generally takes the Optative (§ 31, 1) ; but the Subjunctive also
may be used, in order to retain the mood in which the purpose
would have been originally conceived (as in final clauses, § 44, 2).
For the general principle, see § 77. E. g. ?'

2irovbds enoifjO-avTO, ecos dnayy eXde in ra Xex^evra els AaKeSai-
pova, they made a truce, (to continue) until what had been said should
be announced at Sparta. Xen. Hell. Ill, 2, 20. (Here ecos av d-nay-
ye\6jj might have been used; as in Thuc. I, 90, eieiXevev (rovs
npecrfteis) eTTiaxeiv, ecos av to Tetyor Uavov a'cpcocriv.) See § 77, 1, d.

Note 2. Homer uses els o Ke (or elaoKe). until, with the Sub-
junctive, as Herodotus uses es o with the Indicative (§ 66. 1, N. 2);
as pipvere, els o Kev ciittv peya Hpidpoio tXcopev, II. II. 332. Eis o
Ke may take the Optative, retaining ««'; as in II. XV, 70.

Note 3. "Av is sometimes omitted after ea>s, &c. (including irpiv,
§ 0 7, 1) when they take the Subjunctive, as in common protasis
and in relative sentences (§ 50, 1,'N. 3; § 63. 1) ; after peXpt and
■npiv this occurs even in Attic prose. Thus ear e'yu> poXco, SolMi. I,
Aj. 11S3; ptxpi irXovs yivnrai, TllUC. I, 137: see T H UC^JAL-LC ;
Aeschin. Cor. § 60. ^V' UU L $

3. When the clause introduced by ecu?, &c, until,
refers to a result which was not attained in past time in
consequence of the non-fulfilment of a condition, it takes
a secondary tense of the Indicative. (See § 63, 2.) E. g.

144 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [§ 66, 3.

HSews av tovto) ert 8ie\ey6[it]V, eo>s avra rfjv tov Ap.(piovos ane-
baxa pr/cnv dvrl ttjs tov Zrjdov, I should gladly have continued to talk
with him, until I had given him, &c. Plat. Gorg. 506 B. Ov< av
enavoprjv, ems an (it e ipddrjv rrjs o~o(plas ravrrjcrL Id. Crat. 396 C
'E.Trio~xitiv av, ea>s ol nXelaToi twv eladoTcov yvcoprjv ant <pr) vavro ,
.... rjo-v^iav av rjyov, i. e. / should have waited until most of the regu-
lar speakers had declared their opinion, &c. Dem. Phil. I, § 1. (For
av here, see § 42, 3.)

The leading verb must be an Indicative implying the non-fulfil-
ment of a condition.

4. When the clause introduced by e&><?, &c, until, de-
pends upon a verb denoting a customary action or a
general truth, and refers indefinitely to any one of a
series of occasions, it takes av and the Subjunctive after
primary tenses, and the simple Optative after secondary
tenses. (See § 62.) E. g.

*A 8' ov davvraKTa rj, avdynr/ ruvra del npdyuara nape%eiv, ems av
%a>pav \dl3>i, they must always make trouble, until they are put in
order. Xkn. Cyr. IV, 5, 37. 'Onore £>pa e'ir] dpio-rov, dve p.evev av-
tovs core e pcpdyoiev Tt, a>s urj fiov\ip.Lu>ev. lb. VIII, 1, 44. Tlepi-
fp.evop.ev ovt> eKaarore, eus avoi-^6 e Ltj to 8eo~u.a>Tr]piov, we waited
every day, until the prison was opened. Plat. Phaed. 59 D. (This
may mean until the prison should be opened ; § 66, 2, N 1.)

Note. "Av is sometimes omitted after eats, &c. and npiv. when
they take the Subjunctive in this sense, as well as in the other con-
struction (§ 66, 2, N. 3); as ev tu (ppovelv yap pn8tv tj8io-tos /3tog,
ewj to %aipeiv kcu to \vneio~flat. p.ut)r/s. Soph. Aj. 555. bo o(ppa re-
Xeo~o~y, II. I, 82; and e's oil dno8uvwo~i, Hin. Ill, 31.

Remark. When eW and o(ppa mean so long as, they are rela-
tives, and are included under §§ 58-64. "Ocppa in all its senses is
confined to Epic and Lyric poetry. (See § 43, N. 1.)

B. Upiv, Until, Before that.

§ 67. npiv, before, before that, until, besides taking the
Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative, on the same principles
with <o>f, &c. (§ 66), may also take the Infinitive (§ 106).
The question of choice between the Infinitive and the finite
moods generally depends on the nature of the leading clause.

npiv regularly takes the Subjunctive and Optative (when
they are allowed) only if the leading clause is negative or

§ 67, 2.] CONSTRUCTIONS AFTER Tlplv. 145

interrogative witli a negative implied ; very seldom if that is
affirmative. It takes the Indicative after both negative and
affirmative clauses, but chiefly after negatives.

In Homer the Infinitive is the mood regularly used with
irpiv, after both affirmative and negative clauses; in Attic
Greek it ia regularly used after affirmatives, and seldom after
negatives.

1. The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative after
ttpiv follow the rules already given for €&><>, &c. (§ QQ).
E.g.

(Indie. § 66, 1.) Ovk tjv dXetjTju* ov8ev, dXXd (papu.aK.oov XP€19
(earffff/ceXXoiro, npiv y eyu> a(pi<nv e8ei£a Kpda~ets Tjnicov dKea'p-drtav,
until J showed them, &c. Aesch. Prom. 481. IldXiv tovto repvoon
ova enavrjice, nplv . . . . eXoiSoprjae p.dX' ev 81*07. Plat. Phaedr.
266 A. Ov< rjljiaxrav vea>repov ti noieiv e's avrbv, npiv ye 8f) avrols
duqp 'ApyiXios p.T]vvTrjs yiyverai, until he becomes, &c (Histor.
Pres.) Thuc. I, 132. IIoXAa enaOev, npiv ye oi xpvcdu.nvKa Kovpa
XaXivov IlaXXds rjveyKev. PlND. 01. XIII, 92. 'AvaXoXvge nph
6 pa. Eur. Med. 1173.

(Subj. and Opt. § 66, 2.) Ov ko> <re eyo» Xeyw (ev8aluova), npl»
av TeXevTrjaavra KaXws rov ala>va nv8a>u.ai. Hdt. I, 32. Ov8e
Ary£ei, nplv av r\ Kopea-rj iceap, ij . . . . eXn ns dp%dv. Aesch. Prom.
165. Ov xph f-e (vdev8e dneXBeiv, nplv av 8 a 8iicr)v. Xen. An. V,
7, 5. AXX' 0117767-' i'yay av, nplv t8oip.' opdov enos, u.eu.<pop.eva>v av
Kara(paiT}v. SOPH. O. T. 505. So TlIEOGN. 126, nplv neiptjdeirjt.
So nplv e^eXKva-eiev, depending on a protasis («' utj dveirf), Plat.
Kep. V-LI, 515 hi. OXoto prjna>, nplv uddoip.' el ko.1 ndXiv yvoiu-tjp
fierolaeLS. Soph. Phil. 961. (Uplv after Opt. in wish.) 'Anr]y6peve
p.r)8eva fidXXeiv, nplv Kvpos e unXr/ade irj 8rjpav, until Cyrus should
be satisfied. Xen. Cyr. I, 4, 14. (§ 66, 2, N. 1.)

(Indie. § 66, 3.) ''Exprjv ovv tovs ciXXovs p.rj nporepov nepl t<5k
opuXoyovpevojv o~vp.(3ovXeveiv, nplv nepl ratv dp.(pio-fii]Tovfj.eva>v tjfids
(8i8a£av, they ought not to have given advice, $fc.t until they had
instructed us, &c. Isoc. Paneg. p. 44 C. § 19.

(Subj. and Opt. § 66, 4.) 'Opa>ai tovs npeofivrepovs oi npocrdev
UTtiovras yaorpos evena, nplv av dipaaiv ol upxovres. Xen. Cyr. I,
2, 8. Ov yap nporepov KUTTjyopos napd rots aKovovaiv icr^uet, nplv av
6 (pevycov dSwarrjarf ray npoeipr)p.evas alrias dnoXiaaa$ai. Aes-
CHIN. r . Li. § 2. Ov8ap.68ev dcpiecrav, nplv n a paB eie v avrols dpt-
arov, before they had placed before them. Xen. An. IV, 5, 30.

(Subj. without av. § 66, 2, N. 3.) M17 o-reva(e. nplv udBns- Sorn.
Phil. 917. So Od. X, 175 ; Hdt. I, 136 ; Plat. Phaed.'62 C.

2. For irpiv with the Infinitive, see § 106.

7 J

146 RELATIVE AND TEMPORAL SENTENCES. |_§ 67.

Note 1. In Homer, irpiv is not found with the Indicathn, irpiv
y ore taking its place ; a few cases occur of the Subjunctive y with
out dv) and the Optative ; but the most common Homeric construc-
tion, in sentences of all kinds, is that with the Infinitive (§ 106).

"Hped' drv£6p,tvai, aaviSes 8' e'x0" (v dpapvlai, irpiv y ore 8r) ue ads
vlbs and peydpoio KaXeaaev, i. e. be/ore the time when, &c. Od. XXHI,
43. So II. IX, 588 ; XH, 437. *I2 (pi\oi, ov yap ira> Karadvaopfd' d^vv-
U€voi7Ttp fls 'AiSao 86povs, irp\v papaipov r)pap eireXdrj . Od. X, 175.
Oik edtXtv (pevyetv irpiv ire iprjaair' 'A^iX^os. H. XXI, 580. Ilpiv
y or dv with the Subjunctive is found in Od. II, 374, and IV, 477.

Note 2. Ilpiv with the Infinitive after negative sentences is most
common in Homer (Note 1), rare in the Attic poets, and again more
frequent in Attic prose. (See Kriiger, Vol. H, p. 258.) For ex-
amples see § 106.

Examples of the Subjunctive or Optative with irpiv after affirma-
tive sentences are very rare. One occurs in Iscc. Paneg. p. 44 A,
§16; dans ovv o'terai tovs dXXovs Koivf/ n irpd^iv ^yaddv, irpiv av
rods irpoearmras avTiov 8 iaXXd£rj , Xiav dirXas i'xfl'

Note 3. Ilpiv fj, trpdrepov fj ( priusquam) , and irpdadev fj may be
used in the same constructions as irpiv. Hp\v fj is especially common
in Herodotus. E. g.

Ov yap 8r) trpdrepov airaveaTr), irpiv fj acpeas inro^eiplovs e 770177 -
aaro. Hdt. VI, 45. So Thuc. VI, 61. 'ASuc/et dvairtiOipevos
irpiv r) drpfKidiS e Kpadrj . Hdt. Vn, 10. Kv\fTO pr)8epiav ol avvrv-
X^T' TOiavTrjv yeveadai, fj piv iravaei KaraaTpetyaaOai. rr)v Evpd>irr)v,
it por e pov t) tirl reppaat roiat eKfivrjs yevrjTai. Id. V H, 54.
Updrepov fj with Indie, Plat. Phaedr. 232 E. Updadevnav
e (paivov , tovt fKrjpv)(drj- SOPH. O. T. 736. 'AnfKpivaro on irpo-
aOtv av dnoddvoiev r) ra dnXa irapa8oinaav, that they would die
before they would give up their arms. Xen. An. H, 1, 10. (See
§ 66, 2.) *

For examples of the Infinitive after all these expressions, see
§ 106. Even varepov rj is found with the Infinitive.

Note 4. ILpiV or irpiv fj is very often preceded by irpdrepov,
irpoatdtv, irdpos, or another irpiv (used as an adverb), in the leading
clause. E. g.

Ov it pore pov irpbs rjpds tov irdXepav i£t(pr]vav, irpiv evupiaav,
kt.X. Xen. An. Ill, 1, 16. Ov roivvv dnoKpLvovpat irpdre pov ,
rrp\v dv nvdujpai. Plat. Euthyd. 295 C. Kal ov ir poadtv tornaav,
irpiv rj irpds rois irefyls toiv 'Aaavpi<ov tyivovro. Xen. Cyr. I, 4, 23.

For examnles with the Infinitive, see § 106.

Ncte 5. When irpiv appears to be followed by a primary tense
of the Indicative, it is an adverb qualifying the verb. E. g.

Tr)p 8' (yd) ov Xvaa>' irpiv piv Kal yrjpas eireiaiv, l. e. snonef
shall old aye come upon her. II. I, 29.

§ 68, 3.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 147

SECTION IV.

Indirect Discourse, including Indirect Quotations
and Questions.

§ 68. 1. The words or thoughts of any person may
be quoted either directly or indirectly.

A direct quotation is one which gives the exact words
of the original speaker or writer.

An indirect quotation is one in which the words of
the original speaker conform to the construction of
the sentence in which they are quoted. Thus the ex-
pression ravra /3ov\o/xai may be quoted either directly,
as X-eyet Tt? " ravra fiouXofiat,, or indirectly, as Xeyet n?
on ravra fiovXerat, or Xeyet rt? ravra fiovXeodai,, some
one says that he wishes for these.

2. Indirect quotations may be introduced by on or
©? (negatively ore ov, &>? ov) or by the Infinitive, as in
the example given above ; sometimes also by the Parti-
ciple (§ 73, 2).

3. Indirect questions follow the same rules as indirect
quotations, in regard to their moods and tenses. (For
examples see § 70.)

Note. The term indirect discourse must be understood to
apply to all clauses which express indirectly the words or
thoughts of any person (those of the speaker himself as well
as those of another), after verbs which imply thought or the
expression of thought [verba sentiendi et declarandi), and even
after such expressions as dij\6v ia-Tiv, o-a<fies ia-nu, &c.

The term may be further applied to any single dependent
clause in any sentence, which indirectly expresses the thought
of any other person than the speaker (or past thoughts of the
speaker himself), even when the preceding clauses are not in
indirect discourse. (See § 77.)

148 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 69, 1.

General Principles of Indirect Discourse.

Remark. The following are the general principles of in-
direct discourse, the application of which to particular cases is
shown in §§ 70 - 77.

§ 69. 1. In indirect quotations after on or «<? and
in indirect questions, after primary tenses, each verb
retains both the mood and the tense of the direct dis-
course, no change being made except (when necessary)
in the person of the verb.

After secondary tenses, each primary tense of the
Indicative and each Subjunctive of the direct discourse
may be either changed to the same tense of the Opta-
tive or retained in its original mood and tense. The
Imperfect and Pluperfect, having no tenses in the Opta-
tive, are regularly retained in the Indicative. (See,
however, § 70, Note 1, b.) The Aorist Indicative re-
mains unchanged when it belongs to a dependent clause
of the direct discourse (§ 74, 2) ; but it may be changed
to the Optative, like the primary tenses, when it be-
longs to the leading clause (§ 70, 2). The Indicative
with av belongs under § 69, 2.

2. All secondary tenses of the Indicative implying
non-fulfilment of a condition (§ 49, 2), and all Opta-
tives (with or without av), are retained without change
in either mood or tense, after both primary and second-
ary tenses.

3. When, however, the verb on which the quotation
depends is followed by the Infinitive or Participle, the
leading verb of the quotation is changed to the corre-
sponding tense of the Infinitive or Participle, after both
primary and secondary tenses (av being retained when
there is one), and the dependent verbs follow the pre-
ceding rules. (See § 73.)

§ 70, l.j SIMPLE SENTENCES. 149

4. The adverb av is never joined with a verb in in-
direct discourse, unless it stood also in the direct form :
on the other hand, av is never omitted with a verb in
indirect discourse, if it was used in the direct form.

V

When av is joined to a relative word or particle before
a Subjunctive in the direct discourse, it is regularly
dropped when the Subjunctive is changed to the
Optative in indirect discourse. (See, however, § 74, 1,
N. 2.)

5. The indirect discourse regularly retains the same
negative particle which would be used in the direct
form. But the Infinitive and Participle occasionally
take m in indirect quotation, where ov would be used
in direct discourse. See examples under § 73.

Simple Sentences in Indirect Quotations after on or a><?
and in Indirect Questions.

§ 70. When the direct discourse is a simple sentence,
the verb of which stands in any tense of the Indicative
(without a^), the principle of § 69, 1, gives the follow-
ing rules for indirect quotations after on or <»? and
for indirect questions : —

1. After primary tenses the verb stands in the In-
dicative, in the tense used in the direct discourse.
E.g.

Aty« on ypddtet, he says that he is writing; Xey« on typa<ptv,
he says that he was writing ; Xe'yei onyiypacpev, he says that he has
written; Xe'yet on eycypd<pti, he says that he had written; Xt'yet
on ey payjrev, he says that he wrote ; Xeyei on ypd^ci,he says that
he shall write.

Ae'yei yap o>s ov8tv ecrriv abueiiTtpov <pr]pr)s- AESCHIN. Timarch.
§ 125. Ovydp av tovto y einois, i)S e\adev. Id. F. L. § 151 (160).
hi 8' tare, on irXeiorov Sia<pe pe t (pfjpn Ka\ o-vKOCpavria. lb. § 145
(153). *AXX' ivvoeiv xP^ T°vro pev, yvva1\ on i'cpvpev. Soph.
Ajlt. 61. Kai raid' as dXij#6 Xe'vw, <cai on ovre idodrj ij ^(pos f*

150 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 70, 1

aTrarri trXtlovs t iy tvovro tv>v yjfno^io'ap.fvav, pdprvpas vp.lv na^H^v
paL, I will bring witnesses to show (hat, &c. Dem. Eubul. 1303, 2.

Epa>Ta ti fiovXovrai, he asks what the// want; e'/jcora ri iroit)crov'
aiv, he asks what they will do. 'EpatTwvres el Xijorat e I a i v , asking
whether they are pirates. Tnuc. I, 5. Evfious • hv S' efiXao-rev,
ovk e'^co Xtyetv. SoPH. Trach. 401. Et £ 1 [inovrjae is Kal £u - co*
ydaei audita. Id. Ant. 41. So Eur. Ale. 784

Remark. It is to be noticed that indirect questions after primary
tenses take the Indicative in Greek, and not the Subjunctive as in
Latin. Thus, nescio quis sit, / know not who he is, in Greek is simply
dyvoa> tis e'anv. This does not apply to indirect questions which
would require the Subjunctive in the direct form (§ 71).

2. After secondary tenses the verb may be either
changed to the Optative or retained in the Indicative.
The Optative is the more common form. In both
Indicative and Optative, the tense used in the direct
discourse must be retained. E. g.

"EXe£ev on ypdtpoi (or on ypa(pei), he said that he was writing ;
1. e. he said ypdcpa>. *EXe£ei/ on yey pa(f>a>s t'ln (or ort yeypa-
cpev), he said thc.t he had written; i. e. he said yey paifia. *EXe|ei/ on
y pd^roi (or on ypd^ei), he said that he should write; i. e. he said
ypd\js<o. *EXe£ei> on ypdtp-ftev (or on eypa^ev), he said that he had
written ; i. e. he said eypatya.

(Optative.) 'EvenXnae (ppovfjparos tovs 'ApKabas, Xeycof cbs p.6-
vots p.tv avrois TTurpis TlekoTTovvrfo-os fin, irXeiarov fie twv EXX^i/ikwk
(piiXov to 'ApKadiKov el' 77, Kal adtpara iyKpaTtaraTa e^ot. -^EN. Hell.
VH, 1, 23. (He said pdvois p.ev vp.lv . . . . e' erri, ■nXdarov fie ... .
io-n, Kai ad>p.ara .... eye 1 : these Indicatives might have been used
in the place of an, ei'7, and e'yot.) "EXeye fie 6 IltXoividas on
Apyeloi Kal 'Apuddes p-dyy tjttt] pevoi eiev imo AaKeSaipoviaov.
lb. VII, 1, 35. (He said iJTrnvTai, which might have been
retained.) So Hdt. I, 83. 'Yirairiov rdXXa on avros ruKfl
rrpdt-ot, to\(To, having hinted thai he would himself attend to the
affairs there. Thuc. I, 90. (He said raKel irpdt-v, and irpd£a
might have been used for irpdt-oi. Cf. aTroK.pivdp.tvoi on ire jjl-^ov
o-tv, from the same chapter, quoted below.) For the Future Op-
tative in general, see §26. cO fie direv on eaotvro. Xen. Cyr.
V II, 2, 19. (He said eVoircu.) *EAe£ai> on n e p. ty e t e a<pds 6
Ivb~d>v fiaaiXfvs, KeXfvotv epa>rdv e'£ otov 6 iroXtpos fin, they said
that the king of the Indians had sent them, commanding them to ask
on what account there was war. lb. II, 4, 7. (They said fire/i-
\\nv rjpds, aud the question to be asked was tK rivos tarlv 6 noXe-
fios ;) "EXtyov on Ol^r<i>T^o8, ovtos 6 TTorap.bs 8ia/3ar6s yevoiro irt(j}
ei p.1) rare, they said that this river had never been (tyevero) fordable
accept then. Id. An. I, 4, 18. nepiKXrjs; irponyopeve rols 'Atinvaiois, on

§ 7U, '/..] INDICATIVE AND OPTATIVE. 151

'Ap^t'Sa^os- ^.c? ot £evos fin, ov ptvra irr\ kcikco ye rr)s noXeas yt-
voito, As announced that A. ivas his friend, but that he had not been
made his "-lend to the injury of the state. Thuc. II, 13. (He said £e vos
pot ecrrtj.. ov fievroi ■ • • eyevero.) So Hdt. I, 25. Eyvcocrav on
Kevbs 6 (pofios eln. Xen. An. II, 2, 21. Upo'iSovrts on eo~oi.ro 6
noXffios, e'povXovro tt)v IlXdraiav TrpoKaraXa^eiv- THUC. II. 2. 'En-ft-
pwfirjv avra> 8ei<vvvai, on oloiro pn\v eivai ao(pos, eirj 8' ov. rLAT.
Apol. 21 C.

(Indicative.) *E\eyov on fXiriCovo-iv <re kcu ttjv ttoXiv egeiv
pot x^Plvi tiieU sa^ ^at/ ^iey n0Ped, &c. Isoc. Phil. p. 87 A. § 2:3.
(They said iXTrl£op.(v, which might have been changed to tXniCoiev.)
rH/ce 8" dyyeXXatv ns a>s roiis Trpvraveis ojj 'EXdreia icare iXrjTrrat ,
some one had come with the report that Elatea had been taken. Dem.
Cor. 284, 21. (Here the Perf. Opt. might have been used.) A«t-
vovs Xoyovs eroXfia irep\ ep.ov Aeyeif, ok eya> to npayp. etpi rovro
d(8puKc*s. Id. Mid. 548, 17. Ainao-dp-evos yap pe a <al Xe'ytiv av
OKi/Tjaeie rir, rov narepa a>s diri Krova f'ya> top ep,avrov, k.t.X. Id.
Andr. 593, 14. $avepa>s eiVei/ on rj pev ttoXis a<pa>v Terfl^KTTai
TJbn, he said that their city had already been fortified. Thuc. I, 91.
'AnoKpivapevoi on tt e flyover iv 7rpe'o-j3eis, evdvs drrrjXXa^av. Id. I,
90. (Of. on irpdt-oi, quoted above from the same chapter.)
*Hi8ecrai> on rovs dnfveyKovras operas e £ai ri) a ope v. Dem. Onet.
I, 870, 11. ('E^atrrjaoipev might have been used.) 'ErdXpa Xeyeiv
iiS vizep vpmv e%8povs e'(j> eavrov elXKvae Ka\ viiv iv rails eo-\droi.s
e'o-rt kivSvvois. Id. Andr. 611, 10.

(Indirect Questions.) 'Hpa>Tr)o-ev avrovri iroioin (or n Troiel),
he asked him what he was doing; i. e. he asked n iroieis; 'Hptiorno-ev
avrbv ri neTToijjKws e'ln (or ri ireiroirjKev), he asked him what he
had done ; i. e. he asked ri it e tt o i n k a s ; ' HpaTno-ev avrov ri -roirjo-oi
(or ri it o ir] o~ei), he asked him what he should do ; i. e. he asked ri
■noiT)0-eis ; 'Hparrjo-ev avrov ri noirjo-e lev (or ri erroino-ev), he
asked him what he had done ; i. e. he asked ri enoino-as ;

"Hpero, ei ns epoG e i' n aocpoorepos, he asked whether any one was
wiser than I. Plat. Apol. 21 A. (The direct question was eo-n
ns ao(pwrepos ;) "O n 8e iroir)o-oi oil 8teo-rjprjve, but he did not
indicate what he would do. Xen. An. II, 1, 23. (The direct question
was ri ttoit)o-o> ;) 'Eneipara, riva 8evrepov per eKeivov i8ot, he
asked whom he had seen who came next to him. Hdt. I, 31. (The
direct question was riva ei8es;) E'ipero KoBev Xdfioi rov irai8a, he
asked whence he had received the boy. Id. I, 116. 'Hparav avrov ei
a v a TV X c v ir e i e v , I asked him whether he had set sail. Dem. Polycl.
1223, 20. (The direct question was dvinXevo~as ;)

'Hnopovv ri nore Xeyet, I was uncertain what he meant. Plat.
A.pol. 21 B. (Here X«'yot might have been used.) 'E^ovXdovd'
ovroi nV avroii KaraXe i^ovaiv, they were considering the question,
whom ihey should leave here. Dem. F. L. 378, 23. 'Eporuvrcov nvaiv
Ua ri dnedavtv, napayyeXXeiv tKiXevev, k.t.X. Xen. Hell. H, 1, 4.

Remark 1. After secondary tenses the Indicative and

152 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 70, 2.

Optative are equally classic ; the Optative being used when

the writer wishes to incorporate the quotation entirely into his

own sentence, and the Indicative, when he wishes to quote it

in the original words as far as the construction of his own

sentence allows. The Indicative here, like the Subjunctive in

final and object clauses after secondary tenses (§ 44, 2), ia

merely a more vivid form of expression than the Optative.

We even find both moods in the same sentence, sometimes

when one verb is to be especially emphasized, and sometime*

when there is no apparent reason for the change. E. g.

Oi/rot eXeyov on Kvpos (lev redvrj nev, 'Apialos 8e irfcpevyutsfv
ra o-Ta8pd> e'lrj, /cat Xeyoi, k. t. X. Xen. An. II, 1, 3. (Here
TfdvT)K€v contains the most important part of the message.) 'E/c 8e
tovtov (TrvvddvfTO r/8n atiTutv /cat onoo-nv 686v 8 tT)Xao~av, /cat «
ouoito 7 X*°Pa- Id. Cyr. IV, 4, 4. 'ErdX/xa Xtyeiv, cos \P*a Tt
ndpnoXXa £ kt er iKtv vwep fpov /cat cor 7roXXa tcoj> eucoV Xdftoitv. DEM.
Aph. I, 828, 26. (See Rem. 2.) "Ouotot rjaav 8avp.d£av onoi nore
rpe^rovrat. oi"EXXr]ves /cat Ti ev vaj e^oifu. Xen. An. Ill, 5, 13.

Remark 2. The Perfect and Future were less familiar forms
than the other tenses of the Optative ; so that they were frequently
retained in the Indicative after secondary tenses, even when the
Present or the Aorist was changed to the Optative. (See the last
two examples under Rem. 1.) In indirect questions the Aorist In-
dicative was generally retained, for a reason explained in § 21, 2,
N. 1. Some writers, like Thucydides, preferred the moods and
tenses of the direct form, in all indirect discourse. (See § 44, 2,
Rem.)

Note 1. (a.) An Imperfect or Pluperfect of the direct
discourse is regularly retained in the Indicative, after both
primary and secondary tenses, for want of an Imperfect or
Pluperfect Optative. E. g.

tHk(v ayyeXos Xe'ycoi' on rpifjpeis rjKove nepnrXeovcras, lie came
saying that he had heard, &c. ; i. e. he said jjkovov. Xen. An. I, 2.
21. 'AKOvcras 8e Sevo(pa>v (Xeyev on 6p8a>s grtavro /cat amo to
tpyov avrols paprvpoir], he said that then had accused him rightly,
and that the fact itself bore witness to them ; i. e. he said opda>s jj r t a
aSe /cat to tpyov iip.lv paprvpel. lb. Ill, 3, 12. Et^f yap Xeyftv.
/cat on povoi tcov 'EXXiji/coi/ /3aatXet o~vve pd^ovr o iv IIAaraialy, /cat
on vo~repov oiibenoTf arparevaraivTo in\ /SacnAea {lie said pcr'oi
crvve pa^6p<6 a, . . . /cat . . . oiibknore £ o~t par e vo~d pe 8 a). Xex.
Hell. VII, 1, 34. Tovtodv (kootov rjpopnv, 'Ovrjropa ptv /cat TipoKparnv,
ft fives ei€P pdprvpes a>v evavrlov tijv Tipo'iK dnedoaav, avrov S' " t\<po~
(3ov, ei nvts rraprjo'iiv ut dntXdp'fSavev, I asked each <>J these men, — -

o vv

§ 70, 2.] INDICATIVE AND OPTATIVE. 153

Onetor and Timocrates, whether there were any witnesses before whom
they had paid the dowry ; and Aphobus, whether there had been any
present when he received it. Dfc-M. Onet. I, 8»)0, 10. (The two
questions were rial pdprvpts Tives ; and ■napi)o-dv tipcs ;)

(6.) In__a_few cases, the Present Optative is used after

secondary tenses to represent the Imperfect Indicative. The

Present may thus supply the want of an Imperfect Optative,

as the Present Infinitive and Participle supply the want of

Imperfects (§ 15, 3 and § 16, 2). This can be done only

when the context makes it perfectly clear that the Optative

represents an Imperfect, and not a Present. E. g.

Top Tipayopap dncKTeivav, Karnyopovvros rov Aeovros a>s ovre <tv(t<t]-
vovv edeXot eaurw, pe rd re IIfXo7rtSoii irdvra fiovXevoiro . Xen.
Hell. VII, 1, 38. (The words of Leon were ovre avo-tenvovp fjdeXt
pni, ptrd re IleX. 7rdvra eftovX fvf to .) Ta ■nenpaypeva StnyovvTo,
on avroi flip e'nl rols TroXtpiois TrXeoitv, rfjv 8( dvaipeaiv tg>v vavaywv
nooardiaiev dvSpdaiv Uavols. lb. I, 7, 5. (The direct discourse
was avrot ptv t'nXeopev, ttjp 8e dvaiptcriv npoo-erd^apev.') Kai pai
trdvTfs dneicpivavTO icaO' eKacrrov, on ou8e\s pdprvs napa-V, Kopi-
£oiro 8i Xap(Bdva>p tad' 6tto<tovovv deot-ro "AcpojUos nap' avra>v, they
replied, that no witness had been present, and that Aphobus had received
the money from them, taking it in such sums as he happened to want.
Dem. Onet. I, 869, 12. (The direct discourse was ol8f\s pdprvs
naprjv, (Kopi£tro 8e Xapfidvcov Kaff ottoo-opovp 8eoiro. Uapeir] eon-
tains the answer to the question el rives naprjo-av in the preceding
sentence, which is quoted as the last example under a. The Im-
perfect in the question prevents the Optatives used in the reply
from being ambiguous.) So Plat. Rep. IV, 439 E.

Note 2. In indirect discourse after secondary tenses, each
tense of the Indicative or Optative is to be translated by it»
own past tense, to suit the English idiom. Thus ehep on
ypdcpoi (or ypd<pfi) is he said that he was writing ; elnep on
ycypa<pa>: tin (or yeypacptp) is he said that he had written.

In a few cases the Greek uses the same idiom as the Eng-
lish, and allows the Imperfect or Pluperfect to stand irregu-
larly with on or <5>r after a secondary tense, where regularly
the Present or Perfect (Optative or Indicative) would be re-
quired. In such cases the context must make it clear that
the tense represented is not an Imperfect or Pluperfect (Note
1, a). E. g.

Ev noXXfj a-noplq rjaap oi "EXXnves, epvonvpevoi ptv on hr\ rait
PacriXiws Bvpais rjo-ap, kvkX<o 8e ai/rols ■ • • n6Xeis noXeuuu laav
7*

'•■**%.

oUi£^Sr-X$*) : y ^;>^ ^t^- v^Tk - X£*?"^

154 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. *^ ' f § 70, 2 **v/<

[§ 70, 2 •*/

fl

ayopav Be ov8e\s en rrapetjav tpeXXev, aTreT^oi/ §e r^r 'EXXdSoj
oi> fieiov rj fivpta crraSia, .... 7rpoi8(8a>Kf(Tav 8i uvtovs Kat o'
$dp/3apot, /iovoi 6e KaTaXeXt t p p,e vo i t)aav ouSe 'nrnta ovdtva
avpp.a)(ov e^owes. Xex. An. Ill, 1, 2. (In all these cases the drrect
discourse would be in the Present or Perfect Indicative.) Aeynai
8' avroti yvwvai e<fiy a> c^apei, it is said that he knew for what he was
coming. Thuc. I, 134. (Here YMpot'g or y<»P« would be the regular
form ) \ih tov x&i£iv6v avfipcmov, bs ypas 8ic$v(t , e^anarcov *au
Xtycov at tpiXadfjvaios rj v Kai vav 2a/xo> npa>TOs (careiVot, i. e. saying
(f)iXadr)vains e I p.i Kai rav 'Sdpco npa>Tos kclt (In ov . ARIST. Vesp
283. (Here elpi is changed to r)v, and not to efy : Kanltrov could
have been changed only to KareiVoi.)

In these examples the principle usually observed in indirect dis-
course, — that the tenses employed in the quotation denote relalire
not absolute time (§ 9), — is given up, and the Imperfect and Plu-
perfect denote, absolute time, as in causal sentences (§81, 1). See
§ 81, 2, Rem.

Note 3. (a.) An indirect quotation, with its verb in the Opta-
tive after on or wr, is sometimes followed by an independent sen-
tence with an Optative, which continues the quotation as if it were
itself dependent on the on or as. Such sentences are generally
introduced by yap. E. g.

Hkovov 8' eycoye tlvusv <ur ov8e rovs Xipuivas Ka\ ras dyopas tri

Swcrotei' avTa KapnovcOai' ra yap koivo. ra QeTTaXa>v dno tovtcov Seot

hbioiKe'iv, for (as they said) they must administer, &c. Dem. 01. I, 15,

[ 1 22. 'AneKpivavro avra on dtivvara o~(pio~iv (in ttou'iv a TrpoKaXfirai

\\\av( v 'AOnvatcov ' rralbes yap acpcov Kai yvvalxts Trap eVeifois c'irjerav.

lThuC. II, 72. *EXeyov on navros a£ta Xtyoi 2ev6ns' ^et/xcbi/ yap

1 tin, k.t.X. Xen. An. VII, 3, 13.

(b.) Such independent sentences with the Optative are sometimes
found even when no Optative precedes, in which case the context
always contains some allusion to another's thought or expression.
E. g.

Y7Tf(r^ero tov avbp A^cuo?? roi/Se 8r]Xa>o'fiv aycov' otoirc pet
p.dXio~& iKovcriov Xajiaiv, el p.r) 6k\oi S\ a<ovra, i. e. he thought (o.s he
said), &C. Soph. Phil. 617. 'AXXa yap ovdev n paXXov rjv ddavarov,
aXXa Kai avro to els dvdpcojrov o~a>p.a (X8elv dpxr) r)v avTjj oXidpov,
a>o~Tttp vocros • Kai TaXanroopovpevn re 8r) tovtov tov filov £<o n , ko\
reXeuraicrd ye iv t<5 KaXovpevco davaTco an oXXvoit o, and (according
to the theory) it lives in misery, $•<?., and finally perishes in what is
called death. Plat. Phaed. 95 D. (Plato is here merely stating
the views of others. For the Imperfects in the first sentence, see
§ 11, Note 6.)

§71. When a question in the direct form- would be
* expressed by an interrogative Subjunctive (§ 88), indirect

§ 71.] INTERROGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 155

questions after primary tenses retain the Subjunctive ;
after secondary tenses the Subjunctive may be either
changed to the same tense of the Optative or retained
in its original form. E. g.

Ilpoi dp-cporepa diropat, Tavrrjv ff oncos e^Sco koi r«XX' onddev .
8 t o i k co , / am at a loss on both questions, how I shall give her a dowry
(ttus ravrnv e/cSco;), and whence 1 shall pay other expenses (irodev
riiXka StotKco;). DEM. Aph. I, 834, 18. BovXeiouai owcos ere
d tt o 8 p to , I am trying to think how I shall escape you (ira>s ere airobpco ;).
Xex. C)t. I, 4, 13. OOk i'xco tI X ( y co , / know not what I shall say.
Dem. Phil. Ill, 124, 24. So in Latin, non habeo quid dicam. In
Aesch. Prom. 470, ovk e^co erdc/ucrii' orcp . . . dnaWayai may be
explained on this principle as interrogative; or by § 65, 1, N. 3, as
a relative clause. Ot! yap 8r) 81 dneipiav ye ov (pr)o~eis ex6'" ° Tt
eirrns , for it is not surely through inexperience that you will declare
that you know not ivhat to say (i. e. rl fiVco;). Dem. F. L. 378, 4.
So o rt S co and oh 8a>. Xex. An. I. 7, 7. Tq fit eWcoitaTa ov< old'
et Xpvadvra tovtco 8a>, I do not know whether 1 shall givetheni, &<:.'
Id. Cyr. VIII, 4, 'lG. ■

'Evaeoir/Top .... p.epp.f)pi£ev, rj o ye . . . tckv pev d vacrrrj crete v,
i 8 'ArpeiSnv fVapifoi, rje %6\op nav cr e 1 e v , t pnrvcre it re 6vp.6v.
11. I, 191. (The direct questions were tovs ptv dvaarrja co, 'Arpet'-
tnv 8 evapi^co; — rje iraio-a>, e prjTvaai re;) K\r)povs ndWoy,
vniroTfpos 8t) irpoo-Qev depein ^dXiceov eyxos, i. e. they shook the lots, to
decide which should first throw his spear, the question being Trorepot
trpoaBev dcpij ; II. Ill, 317. 'F.7rr)povTo, el n apa8o1e v KopivBiois Tr)v
ttoXiu, they asked whether they should give up their city, the question
being -n apa8Q> p.ev rr)v -nokiv ; Thuc. I, 25. 'EfiovXevovro el to
crKfvo(pupa evravda ayoivTo r) dnioiev eVi to o-TpaToive8ov. Xex.
An. I, 10, 17. (So An. I, 10, 5.) 'Hnopei 6 rt x p i\ cr a t r o rco npa-
ypan, he teas at a loss how to act in the matter, i. e. t'l xPr)(Ta>H-ai •
Id. Hell. VII, 4, 39. Ov yap e'L^opev .... ottois 8pa>vTes KaXcor
npd^aipev, for we could not see how we should fare well, if we did
it. Soph. Ant. 272.

AnopeovTos 8e jSacriXeo? o ti XP1 a"rlTal r<? irapeovri TrprjyfiaTi,
En-taXr^? r)\8e ol es \6yovs- Hdt. VII, 213. 'H.7r6pno~e p.tv ottois-
pcorre 8iaKiv8vve v g-jj xatprjaas. ThUC. I, 63. Ot nXaratij? eBov-
XevovTo eire Kara/cav o~ 00 or iv coanep f^ovcrti/, e"re Ti~aX\o ^pi^crcpjjj-
raT^ivhether they should burn them as they were, or deal with than in
spme^otherjwari, "IaTU, 4. ' AiroprjO-avre s onrj KaOopp.i cr a> v r a t , es
Upd>TTjv tt)v vr]o~ov ?Trkevo-av. Id. IV,~T3r ~

E em ark 1. The context must decide whether the Optative in
indirect questions represents a Subjunctive (§ 7i) or an Indicative
(§ 70, 2). The distinction is especially important when the Aorist
Optative is used (§ 21, 2, N. 1). See also § 74, 2, N. 1.

Remark 2. When the leading verb is in the Optative witb a*, ^

156 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. |_§ 71

the Optative may be used in indirect questions of this class. Se«
examples in § 34, 3.

Note 1. The particle commonly used in the sense of whether in yt»
indirect questions is el, which can introduce a Subjunctive, as well |
as an Indicative or Optative. (See Xen. Cyr. VIII, 4, 16, quoted "V
above.) 'Eav cannot mean whether; and when this introduces a
clause resembling an indirect question, the expression is really a
protasis, with an apodosis suppressed or implied (§ 53, N. 2). E. g,

El 8e (toi fir] So«et, enteral eav roSe trot paXXov dpecrKn' (pnpi yap
ey<b to vop.ip.ov 8Uaiov elvai. Xen. Mem. IV, 4, 12. (The meaning
here is, but if that does not please you, examine, in case this shall suit
you belter {that then you may adopt it) ; and not, look to see whether this
suits you better. If iav dpeo-Kn is an indirect question, it can represent
no form of direct question which includes the av. Even dpeo-Krj
alone could not be explained as an interrogative Subjunctive, by
§ 88.) 'Eav dpeo-Kr) in the passage just quoted is similar to eav
€vbei£a>p.e6a in Plat. Rep. V, 455 B : BovXei ovv decopeda tov ra
roiaira dvTiKe'yovTOS aKoXovdijcrat rjpiv, edv ncos rjpeis eiceivcp evdei-
£iop.e6a, on ov8ev etrriv e'irtrT]8evpa 'ibiov ; shall we then ask the one
who makes such objections to follow us, in case we can in any ivay show
him that, &c? See Xen. An. II, 1, 8; and Arist. Nub. 535.
(Such sentences belong under § 53, N. 2. See also § 77, 1, c.)

Note 2. Ei ice with the Subjunctive in Homer sometimes forms
an indirect question, representing the Epic Subjunctive with « in
the direct question. (See § 87, Note.) E. g.

Mevere ocppa 'ibnr at k vp,ptv luepcrxTI XeiPa Kpoviav ; are you
waiting that you may see whether the son of Kronos will hold his hand
to protect you? II. IV, 249. (The direct question would be wrep-
itxjj Ke xflPa >') Here the *e always belongs to the verb, so that this
Epic construction is no authority for the supposed Attic use of edv
and the Subjunctive in the same sense. See Note 1.

§ 72. When the verb of the direct discourse stand?
with av in the Indicative or Optative (forming an apo-
dosis), the same mood and tense are retained in indi-
rect quotations with cm and &><? and in indirect questions,
after both primary and secondary tenses. (See § 69, 2.)
E.g.

Aey« oti tovto av eye'vero, he says that this would halt happened:
eXeyev on tovto av eye'vero, he said that this would have happened.
Ae'yei (or eXeyev) on ovtos dtKaicos av ddvoi, he says (or said) thai
this man would justly be put to death.

(QepiOTOKXris) dneicpivaTO, on out a v avrbs 2ep[(pios tov ovopaorbt
iyivero oiir etceivos 'Adnvaios, he rtplied that he should not have

s 73, l.J INFINITIVE. J 57

become famous himself if he had been a Seriphian, nor would the other
f he had been an Athenian. Plat. Rep. I, 330 A. 'Ewoelrf, on
t)ttov dv o-Tacns fin ivos dpxovros rj noWav. Xen. An. VI, 1, 29.
AweiepivaTO, on irpdadev dv diroddvoiev r) rd orrXa irapa8olt)<rav.
Tb. II, 1, 10. (The direct discourse was npoadev dv anoBdvoi-
uev .) YlapeXdav tis Sei£drco, a>s ol QfTTaKoi vvv ovk dv tkevBepoi
yevoivro dapevoi DeM. 01. II, 20, 18. Ovd" elBtvai (prjo-l ti d>
voiav vplv xapicraiTo. Id. F. L. 356, 13. Ovk e^w tis a v y evoi
\tav. Aesch. From. 905. So 907. 'HpboTwu ei Solej/ dv tovtidi
ra mo-rd. Xen. An. IV, 8, 7.

~~ NoteT The same rule applies when a secondary tense of the
Indicative in apodosis with dv omitted (§ 49, 2, N. 2) is quoted.
E.g.

("EXeyei/) on .... KpeiTrov rj v avria tots diradavtiv, he said that it
were better for him to die at once. Lys'. X, p. 117, § 25. (The direct
discourse was Kpeirrov r] v poi.)

§ 73. 1. When the Infinitive is used in the indirect
quotation of a simple sentence, which had its verb in
the Indicative (with or without av*) or the Optative
(with av), the verb is changed in the quotation to the
same tense of the Infinitive, after both primary and
secondary tenses. If av was used in the direct dis-
course, it must be retained with the Infinitive.

The Present and Perfect Infinitive here represent the
Imperfect and Pluperfect (as well as the Present and
Perfect) Indicative. (§ 15, 3 ; § 18, 3, Rem.) E. g.

♦170-1 ypdcpeiv, he says that he is writing ; ecprj ypdcpeiv, he said thai
he was writing ; (prjaei ypdcpeiv, he will say that he is (then') writing.
(The direct discourse is here ypdcpa.) <&na\ (ecpn) ypdcpeiv dv, el
fdvvaro, he says (or said) that he should noiu be writing, if he were
able. (He says eypacpov dv.) ♦170-} (ecprj) ypdcpeiv dv, el dvvairo,
lie says (or said) that he should write, if he should (ever) be able. (He
eays ypdcpoipi dv.)

♦1701 ypd\j/ai, he says that he wrote ; ecpn ypd-^ai, he said that he had
written ; cprjo-ei ypdy\rai, he will say that lie wrote. (He says eypa-^ra.
See § 23, 2.) ♦ijo-i (ecpn) ypd^rai dv, el edvvrjdn, he says (or said)
that he should have written, if he had been able. (He says eypayjra
dv.) ♦ijol (ecpn) ypdtpai dv, el bvvndein, he says (or said) that he
sLould write, if he should (ever) be able. (He says ypd\paipi dv.)

♦qoi (cpljcrei) yeypa<pevai, he says (or will say) that he has written ;
fipr) yeypacpe'vai, he said that he had written. (He says ye'ypacpa.)
For the Perfect with dv, see below.

♦17a* (<pi)o-€i) ypdcpeiv, he says (or ivill say) that he will write ; ecpq
ypd^etf , he said that he would write. (He says yodifcD.)

158 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 73, 1

(Present.) 'Appcoo-Telv irpocpa<rl£eTai, he pretends that he is sick
F,%a>poarev dp poooreiv tovtovI, he took his oath that this man was
sick. Dem. F. L. 379, 15 and 17. Ovk e'cpr) ovtos dXX' eiceivov
o-rparnyeiv, he said that not he himself, but JYicias, was general ;

I. e. he said, ovk eyio airos dXX' eicelvos <jt parnyet. ThuC- IV, 28.
Tivas Ttor ev%ds viroXapfidveT ev^etr^ai tov QiXtmrov or eairevhev ;
what prayers do you suppose Philip made, &c. ? Dem. F. L. 381, 10.
(Evxcardai here represents nvxeTo: for other examples of the Im-
perfect, see § 15, 3.) Oipai yelp dv ovk d^apiVrcoy poi e^eif , for 1
think it ivould not be a thankless labor; i. e. ovk dv 'e'x°<- Xen. An.

II, 3, 18. O'ieade yap tov narepa .... ovk av (pvXdrre iv /cat tt)v
npf/v Xapfidv e iv tcov ncoXovpevav jjvXaiv, do you think that he ivould
not have taken care and have received the pay, &c. V i. e. ovk av
ecpvXaTTev na\ eXdpfiavev; Dem. Timoth. 1194, 20. (See
§ 41, 1.)

( Aorist.) KaTao-^eiK cprjo-i tovtovs, he says that he detained them.
Tovs 8* alxpaXdiTuvs ov8' evdv pndrjvai (prjai Xvaaadai, but he says
that he did not even think of ransoming the prisoners. Dem. F. L. 353,
14 and 18. (He says kotco-xov, and ovS" evedvpjjdrjv.) *0 Kvpos
Xeyerat yeveadai Kap{Bvo-ea>, Cyrus is sai<l to have been the son of
Cambyses. Xex. Cyr. I, 2, 1. Tovs 'A&nvaiovs ijXni£ev iVco? av
cne l-eX6 eiv Kal ttjv yijv ovk av ire pudeiv Tprj8rjvai, he hoped that
the Athenians ivould perhaps march out, and not allow their land to
belaid waste; l. e. i'craK av eire^eXdoiev Kal ovk av ire piidoiev.
J.HUC. II, 20. Arrrjeaav vupiaavres prj av ert iKavol yeveadai
KcoXvaai tov Teixio-pov. Id. VI, 102. (Here ovk av yevoipeda would
be the direct form. (See § 69, 5.) So I, 139. Ovk dv r^yeiaff avrdv
kclv eiribpapeiv , do you not believe that (in that case) he would
have run thither? i. e. ovk av enedpapev; Dem. Aph. I, 831, 12.
(See §41, 3.)

(Perfect.) <&n<r\v avTos aiTios yeyevrjo-dai, he says, a'lTios y e y e -
ft] pa i. Dem. F. L. 352, 26. E'Ua£ov rf 8id)Kovra oi^ecr^ai tj Kara-
Xrp^ropevdv rt ir poeXrjXaKe'vai. Xen. An. I, 10, 16. (Their
thought was q 8id>Ka>v oi'^eTot, rj . . . irpoe XrjXaKev. See § 10,
N. 4.) "E(prj xpfjpaO' eavTG> tovs Qrjfialovs eiriKeKTjpvxevat, ^e sa^
that the Thebans had offered a reward for him. Dem. F. L. 347, 26.
For examples of the Perfect Infinitive with dv, representing the
Pluperfect Indicative and the Perfect Optative, see § 41, 2.

(Future.) 'EnayyeXXerai Ta SiKaia iroirjaeiv, he promises to
do what is right. Dem. F. L. 356, 10. So II. I, 161. *E<pr) eindt
ijpepwv e'iKoatv ij d£eiv AaKeSaipoviovs (avTas fj avrov diro/treveiv,
he said that within twenty days he would either bring them alive or kill
them where they were. Thuc. IV, 28. (Cleon said f) a|a> . . . i)
airoKT ei»o>.) TavTa ((pqal) it en pd£t ad ai 8voiv r] Tpiaiv rjpepcov,
he says that this wdl have been accomplished within two or three days.
Dem. F. L. 364, 18. (See § 29, Note 6.) For the rare Future In-
finitive with dv, see § 41, 4.

Remark. For the meaning of each tense of the Infinitive in
indirect discourse, see § 15, 2; § 18, 3 ; § 23, 2; and § 27. It will

§ 73, 2.] PARTICIPLE. 159

bo seen that these tenses (especially the Aorist) in this use differ
essentially from the same tenses in other constructions; it is there-
fore important to ascertain in each case to which class the Infinitive
oelongs. This must be decided by the context; but in general it
may be stated that an Infinitive stands in indirect discourse, when
it depends upon a verb implying thought or the expression of thought,
jmd when also the thought, as originally conceived, would have been
expressed by some tense of the Indicative (with or without av) or of
the Optative (with av), which can be transferred without change of
tense to the Infinitive. (See § 15, 2, N. 1, which applies only to
the Infinitive without av.) Thus Xeyw avrov e\8t'iv means / sag that
He came ; but (3ov\eTai eXdfiv means he icishes to come, where i\6nv
is merely an ordinary Infinitive, belonging under § 23, 1. In the
former case e\6elv represents rjXdev, but in the latter case it repre-
sents no form of the Aorist Indicative or Optative, and is therefore
not in indirect discourse. So with the Infinitive after all verbs of
commanding, advising, wishing, and others enumerated in § 92, 1.

2. When the Participle with the sense of the Infini-
tive (§ 113) is used in the indirect quotation of a
simple sentence, it follows the rules already given for
the Infinitive (§ 73, 1), in regard to its tense and the
use of av. E. g.

'Ayye'XXei tovtovs epxo/j. e vov s , he announces that 'they are com-
ing ; fjyyeikf tovtovs e pxopevovs , he announced that they were
coming. (The announcement is ovtoi epxavrat.) 'Ayye'XXei
tovtovs i\66vTas , he announces that they came; fjyyeike tovtovs
(Xdovras , he announced that they had come. (The announcement
is >7 X 6 o v .) ' Ayye'XXei tovtovs eXnXvd otcis , he announces that they
are come ; ffyyeiKe tovtovs eXnXvdoTas,he announced that they were
tome. (The announcement is e'X n Xvdao-iv .) 'AyyeXXei (fjyyeiXe)
roiiTo yevno-ofievov, he announces (or announced) that this is (or
tias) about to happen. (He announces tovto yevrjo-erai.)

Tots re yap €7Tt.x(ipf]p.ao'iv eapwv ov kot o pd ovvt e s nai tovs ffTpa-
riaiTas axdopf'vovs tjj povjj, they satv that they were not succeeding,
and that the soldiers were distressed ; i. e. they saw, ov Karopdov p.ev
tal ol orpaTicoiai a)(dovTat. TlIUC. VII, 47. 'Enpevopev ois lapo-
loyrjaapev dixaiois ovo~iv; do we abide by what ice acknowledged to
be just (i. e. 8i<aid earn/) ? Plat. Crit. 50 A. ndvd' eW*a e'aurou
co i coi/ £i-ikrp\eyKTai, he has been proved to be doing everything for his
twn interest. Dem. 01. II, 20, 12. Avtco Kipov o-TpaTevovra
irpuTos TjyyeiKa, 1 first announced to him that Cyrus ivas marching
against him. Xkn. An. II, 3, 19. See Soph.O. T. 395.

EniOTdpevoi Ka) tov fidpfiapov avTov wepl avra to. nXdco <T(pa-
KtvTa, Kal Trpos avroiis tovs 'Adnvaiovs noXXd fjpas rjOn tois ap.apr
tnfUUTiv aiiTaiv pdXXov rj tjj dip' vpaiv Tipotpia nepiyeyevnptvovs.
Thuc. I, 69. (The direct discourse would be 6 fidpfiapos ■ . .
ivfydXn, ko\ Tjpels . . • Trcpiy(yei>T]p.(6a) So in the same chapter,

1G0 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 73, 2.

roe Mrjbov avTo\io-pev tic neipdrav yr)s ejri ttjv neXojTovv^crov iXOovra,
i. e. 6 Mt/Sos f)X6ev. Ov yap yfteaav alrbv re 6vn kotci, for they did
not know that he ivas dead (i. e. redvrjKev). Xen. An. I, 10, 16.
'Enfdeifja ovdev dXrjdes dnrjyyeXicoTa dXXa <p e vaK Lcravd' ipds, I have
shown that he has reported nothing that is true, and that he deceived
you. (Perf. and Aor.) Dem. F. L. 396, 30.

Ei ev fjdeiv Kai rr)v o-vpuaxiav uoi yevrja-opevnv , if I were sure that
I should obtain an alliance also (i. e. avppaxia /not yevrjo-erai). lb. 353,
25. So Xen. Hell. IV, 7, 3. 'O 8' avrocfeikav a/i/3Avrepos, elbu>s ovk
es X"-Piv uXX* es dcpeiXrjpa rr)v dperr)v drrob tocratv , knowing that he shall
return the benefit, &C. TllUC. II, 40. Tvovres ovt dnoKOiXvo-eiv ftwa-
Tol owes , el' t' dnopovcodrjo-ovTai tt)s £v/i/3a<xecos, Kivdvvevaovre s,
Troiovvrai ouoXoyiav. Id. Ill, 28. (The direct discourse would be
ovre dvvaroi ecrpev, el r dnopovaidrjO-opeOa, Kivhvvevaopev.)

Eu b° to-dt fir/bev av ue tovtu>v e'lri^eipijirai'ra ere irc'idav, ei
fivraareiaf povov rj nXovrov etopav e£ avrav y e vrj o~6 pevov . IsOC.
Phil. p. 109 B. § 133. (Here prjbev av eirtxeipr)o-avTa represents ovbev
av iirexeipntra, § 69, 5 ; and yevrjaopevov represents yevrjo-erai.)
'SKonovpevos ovv evpio~<ov ovbapws a v ciXXais tovto hi an pa£u pe vos ,
I found that I could accomplish this (8ianpagaipr)v civ) in no other way.
Id. Antid. p. 311 C. § 7.

'Onas 8e ye tovs TroXepiovs Bvvaiade kokcos noielv, ovk oicrda pav-
ddvowas vpds noXXas Ka<ovpylas, do you not know that you learned,
&c. Xen. Cyr. I, 6, 28. (Here the Optative bvvaicrde, as well as
the whole context, shows that pavddvovras represents e pavddvere,
§ 16, 2.) Mepvrjpai 8e eycoye /cat nais a>v Kptria rcSSe £vv6wa <re, I
remember that you were with this Critias. Plat. Charm. 156 A.
(Svvovra represents i-vvr)<rda.) See § 16, 2, and the examples.

Indirect Quotation of Compound Sentences.

§ 74. When a compound sentence is to be indi-
rectly quoted, its leading verb is expressed according to
the rules given for simple sentences (§§ 70-73).

1. If the quotation depends on a primary tense, all
the dependent verbs of the original sentence retain the
moods and tenses of the direct discourse.

If the quotation depends on a secondary tense, all
dependent verbs of the original sentence which in the
direct discourse stood in the Present, Perfect, or Future
Indicative, or in any tense of the Subjunctive, may (at
the pleasure of the writer) either be changed to the

§ 74, 1 ] COMPOUND SENTENCES. 161

same tenses of the Optative, or retain both the moods
and tenses of the direct discourse. The Optative is
the more common form. E. g.

(After primary tenses.) *Av 8' vpt'is Xiynrt, iroifia-eiv (<f>r)<rl)
o firjT aio~xyvnv pr)T d8o£iav avrop <fi e p t t . Dem. F. L. 354, 8. (Here
no change is made, except from 7iW;o-fi to noLrjo-tiv.) Hop.ifa yap,
av tovt d/cpi/3a>? /id^ijrf, pdXXov iipds tovtois ptv an mttt) (re iv
ifioi 8i (3or]8r)<Ttiv. Id. Onet. I, 870, 27. 'Eav t\t7vo tlhasptv,
on aitavra baa ttcoitot t/Xtt i a a pi v nva Trpdt-eiv iinep rjpa>v ko.8' rjpatv
tvpnrai, . . . (cue pf] w e BeXapt v ocei noXtpeiv avra, ivBdS" iaa>t
dvaynaaBrjaoptBa tovto Tioielv, k. t. X. Id. Phil. I, 54, 18. Hpo-
Xiyut on, onortp av drro k p i vtjt at. , i^tXty)(6j]atTai. Plat. Euthyd.
275 E. See Dem. Mid. 536, 1, where two such conditional sen-
tences depend on et irp<8r)Xov ytvoiro. (See § 34, 3.)

Opa> ao\ tovtuv 8trjaov, brav iir iBv prj arj s (ptXlav irpos nva*
noitiaBai. Xen. Mem. II, 6, 29. Jlapdbeiypa <ra(pes KaraaTrjaaTt, 6i
av dcpiarrJTai, Bavdrat £n piaxropevov. TlIUC. Ill, 40. Sefc
§ 73, 2.

(Opt. after secondary tenses.) Etjre on av8pa ay o t bv efp£at 8 i o t
he said that he was bringing a man whom it was necessary to confine
i. e. he said avdpa aya> bv tlp£ai 8(1. Xen. Hell. V, 4, 8. 'Aire
Kpivaro on par 0 duo if v Ol pavBdvovTts a ovk iw icrraiVTO , i. e. hi
replied, pavBdvovat a ouk iiriaravTai. Plat. Euthyd. 276 E. (Here
a has a definite antecedent, § 59, and is not conditional ; it takes tht
Optative only because it is in indirect discourse. So with 6v in the
preceding example.) 'AyrjcriXaos tXeytv on, tl QXafitpa Treirpa^ai
fin, 8licaios t'Ln ^ijpiovaBai, i. e. he said tl fiXafiepa netr pa%e f
diKatdr tart (j}piova8ai. Xen. Hell. V, 2, 32. So An. VI, 6, 25.

Et 8e Tiva (ptvyovra XrjyJAOiTO , nporjyoptvtt on cos jroXe/i<a> \P1
aoiTo. Id. Cyr. TIT. 1, 3. (This is a quotation of a conditionav
sentence belonging under § 50, 1, N. 1 ; ei nva Xrj^opai., . . . xP'l0'0
luu.) Tvovres 8t . . . on, et 8u>o~oitv tvBvvas, xii/fvtficroif ■
dTroXe'cr^at, Ttipnovaiv <a\ 8i8dax.ovaiv rovs QrjjSaiovs as, ei uq arpa~
Teuffoifc, k t v 8 v vt v ao i t v ol ' Ap<d8ts ndXiv Xa<aviaai. Id. Hell
VII, 4, 34. (See § 32, 2.) *Hi8et yap on, tl pd^rjs nort b^rjaoi, eV
tovtoiv avrm Trapaardras Xnnrtov tin. Id. Cyr. VIH, 1, 10.
(The direct discourse was ei n Seijo-ei, . . . Xnirriov eariv )

'EXoyi£ovro cos, tl p.r] pd\oivro , an oo~tt) aoivro ai irtpioixiSf
TToXtis. Id. Hell. VI, 4, 6. ('Eav prj pa^aptda, dnoaTTjo-ovrai.)
XpTjpaB' VTrio-xvelro 8d)o~ttv, tl tov irpdyparos air icavro ipi. Dem.
Mid. 548, 20. (Ad>a&>, iav alndoSt.) 'Hyeiro yap dnav 7roiijo-e if
avrbv, tins dpyvpiov 8i8oln. Lys. in Erat. p. 121, § 14. Evt-avro
o~coTT)pia dv at iv , tvdairpaiTOv tls (piXiav yrjv dcp l koivto . Xen. An.
V, 1, 1. (The dependent clause is found in the direct discourse in III
2, 9 : 8o<tl pot tv^ao-dai tu #€<£> tovtco dvativ acoTTjpia ottov av irpa>Tjr
tls (piXiav yr)v d(pt ko> pt 6 a.) Tovro inpaypaTtvtTO vopi£a>v, oo~a irj\
rroXeoos n poXdftoi, ndvra Tavra fit(3alo>s t^tiv. Dem. Cor. 234, 5
("Oo"' av 7J-po>d^&>, /3e/3a/oos e£oj.) "H\iri(ov vno toi naibcor, t'7r*i8)

K

162 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 74, 1.

reXevrrjcreiav rbv /3i'oi>, racprjcre <r6ai . L YS. Agor. p. 133. § 45.
( Enei8av reXevrTjacopev, ra(prio~6pe6a.) Kdvoiv e'8i8ao-Kev cos ovra> pev
noiovvn Tracrai avr<a al noXeis (piXiat eaoivro, el 8e 8ovXovo~6at
(iovXupevos (pavepbs ecrotro, eXeyev cos pia eKaarrj noXXa Trpdypara
tKavr) ein nape'xeiv, Kal Ktv8vvos eirr pr) Kal oi "EXXrjves, el ravra
a'lcrdoivTo , avfrrale v. Xen. Hell. IV, 8, 2.

En 8e yiyva>o~Keiv ecpaaav (pdovovvras pev avrovs, et n crCpicriv
dyadbv y tyvo iro , e (prj 8o pevov s 8\ et ns crvp(popa tt poem itttoi ,
they said they knew that they were envious if any good came to
them, but pleased if any calamity befell them. lb. V, 2, 2. (4>dovelre
pev, eav n tjpiv dyaQbv y lyvrjrai , e(pr)8e cr 8 e 8', eav ns o~vp<popa
it pocrrr Lnrr) . bee § 51.) Tr)v alriav, r) Trp68rjXos rjv en eKeivovs
rj^ovo-a, ei n 7rdt9oi Xapi8r] pos- Dem. Aristoc. 624, 20.
("H£et, eav ti iraBrj Xapl8rjpos) See § 73, 2.

(Subj. and Indie, after secondary tenses.) "EXeyov on aicpa. re
eanv ev8ov Kal ol TroXepioi 7roXXoi, ot iraiovcriv roiis ev8ov av-
Bpunovs, then said that there was a height, &c. Xen. An. V, 2, 1 7
(Here etep and rraloiev might have been used.)

£doK6( /not ravrrj neipao-BaL o~o)8r)vai, ivdvp.ovp.tva on, eav pev
XdOa>, crmdrjaopai, k.t.X. Lys. Erat. p. 121, § 15. (Here et
\d8oipi, o-(o8r]o-oipT]v might have been used.) <£do-Kcoi> re, t)v o-a>8rj
o'lKahe, Kara ye rb avna 8vvarbv 8 taXXdfje iv 'Adrjvaiovs Kal Aa*e-
8aipovlovs, airtirXevo-ev. Xen. Hell. I, G, 7. (He said rjv aa>8u>,
which might have been changed to el o-<o8eir}-) 'Yneaxovro avrois,
fjv enl Hori8aiav tcocriv 'Adrjvaioi, e's rr)v 'ArriKrjv eaftaXelv. TlIUC.
I, 58. ( Hv ioxriv, eo~ftaXoiipev.) So TlIUC. I, 13 7. Kai ovk ecpaaav
tevai, eav pr) ns avrois xPr)fxaTa StSco. . . O 8' vffeo~xeTO dv8pl endora
8u>o-eiv Tvevre pvds, enav els BafivXHva TjKOicri, Kal rbv p.icr6bv
evreXrj, ptxpi av kut ao~rrj crv rovs'EXXrjvas els 'lu>v'iav ndXiv- Xen.
An. I, 4, 12 and 13. "Ecprj xprjvai, . . . ot av eXeyx&^c t 3ta/3dX-
Xovres raw EXXr'jvcov, a>s Trpoboras ovras npcoprjdrjvai. lb. II, 5, 27.

El 8e pr), Kal avrol ecpacrav avratv roiis civ8pas drroKTe veiv ovs
exovai {atvras- TlIUC. H, 5. ("E^otev might have been used.) Ka-
T ao~ xio~ e <.v ras irvXas ecpaaav, el pr) eKOvres dvoi^ov a iv . Xen. An.
VH, 1, 16. (Et pr) dvoi^oiev might have been used.) Avrois roiavrrj
86£a TTapeio-rriKei, u>s, el pev irporepov e'n aXXnv iroXiv lacriv, eKeivois
Kal A0r]vaiots noXe pr) crovcr iv el 8' e'vdd8e Tvparov depi^ovrat,
oi8evas tiXXovs roXpr) aeiv , k.t.X. Lys. Or. Fun. p. 192, § 22.
(ToOro) npodrrXov r\v e a 6 pevov , et pr) vpeis KcoXvaer e , it was
already manifest that this would be so, unless you should prevent it (i. e.
earai, el p.r) KuiXvaere). AESCHIN. Cor. § 90. (KcuXucroire might be
used ; and KaXvo-aire, representing eav pr) KcoXvoTjre, is found in one
Ms. and many editions.) See § 73, 2.

Note 1. The dependent verbs in indirect discourse may
be changed to the Optative, even when the leading verb re-
tains the Indicative ; and sometimes (though rarely) a de-
pendent verb retains the Subjunctive or Indicative, when the

§ 74-, 1.} COMPOUND SENTENCES. 163

leading verb is changed to the Optative. This often gives
rise to a great variety of constructions in the same sentence.
Kg. i

ArjXcocras on eToipoi elai pd\eadai, el tis e £e pxoiro. Xen
Cyr. IV, 1, 1. ("Erotpoi elcriv, eav tis e^epxyrai.) Avcrav8pos etrre
on napaanovbovs vpds f^oi, Kai on ov nep\ noXiTelas vp.1v ecrrai
dXXd TTfpl trcoTTjpias, el pfj noiijcraid' a Qrjpapevrjs KeXevoi . Lys. in
Erat. p. 127, § 74. ("E^co, Kai ov . . . ecrrai, eav pfj 7roir)crr)d' a 0.
KeXevei. There is no need of the emendations 7ronjo-rr' and KeXevei.)
E8oKei 8qXov eivat oti aip7?o~oz/Tut avrbv, e'i tis en i\j/r)(p i£oi.
Xen. An. VI, 1, 25. Ouk rjyvoei Ev(3ovXi8r]s on, ei Xo'yoj a7ro8o#i7-
(roiro, Kai napaye voivto pot iravres ol 8rjp6rai, Kat rj i\rr)(pos
BiKaicos 8oBeitj, ov8apov y evq cr ovt a i ol perd tovtov avvear^Kores.
Dem. Eubul. 1303, 22. (Ei dno8o6i]CTeTai, Kai eav napayevcovrai, Kai
yj/f/cpos 8o$fj, ov8apoi> yevrjaovrai-) 'AyrjaiXaos yvovs on, el pev prj8e-
Tepco truXXr^otro, pio~6bv ovBt'repos Xvcrei to'is EXXtjctiv, dyopdv
8e ovBerepos n a pe £e t , Snore pos r dv k pari] ay , ovtos e\8p6s
ecrrai' (I 8e tw erepco ctvXXtj^o ito , ovtos ye cplXos ecroiro,
k.t.X. Xen. Ages. II, 31.

EXeyov oti etKora 8oKolev Xeyeiv j3ao~iXe7, ical iJKOiev fjyrjpovas
e^ovres, oi avrovs, eav o~nov8al yevcovrai, d^ovaiv evOev e^ovai
n\ eTTiTT]8eta. Xe>J. An. II, 3, 6. 'EnrjptoTa, irola e'lrj ra>v dpecov
dnoQev ol XaXbaloi Karadeovres Xrj i£ovrai . Id. Cyr. Ill, 2. 1.
Tovrois npovXeyov, on etpcovevtroio Kai ndvra pdXXov ttoitjct o is t]
dnoKpivolo , e'i tis t'i ere epcora. Plat. Rep. I, 337 A. ('Epcora
in the direct discourse would belong under § 51, N. 3, the Futures
denoting a habit.) EXe£as on piyio-Tov eir] p.a6elv ontus 8 el e'£ep-
yd^eaSai eKaara ' el 8e pr), ovde ttjs enipeXelas ecprjada d(peXos ov8ev
yiyveadai, el pi) tis eiricrTairo d del Kai cos del noielv. Xex. Oecon.
XV, 2.

In Dem. Cor. 276, 23, we have both the constructions of § 74, 1
in the same sentence : el p.ev tovto tcov eKeivov cwppd^cov elcrrjy olr 6
tis, vtt 6^ e o~ 6 at to npdypa evopi^e ndvras, dv 8 'Atirjvalos tj 6 tovto
noicov, evnopcos Xrjcrfiv. (Here el elcrrjyo'iro represents eav elcjTj-
yi]rai, corresponding to eav y.)

Note 2. According to the general rule (§ 69, 4), all relatives
and particles which take dv and the Subjunctive lose the dv when
such Subjunctives are changed to the Optative in indirect discourse
aftei secondary tenses. In a few cases, however, the dv is irregu-
larly retained, even after the verb has been changed to the Opta-
tive. This must not be confounded with dv belonging to the
Optative itself, making an apodosis. E. g.

Ovk eo~& octtis oi)( rjye'iTo tcov elboTcov diKrjv pe Xr]^reo~6ai nap av-
itov, eVeiSai/ ra'^icrra dvrjp eivai So Kipacr 8 e irj v. DEM. Onet. .1,
865, 24. (The direct discourse was e'nei8dv SoKipacrBy, and the
regular indirect form would be either enei8f) 8oKipaa6elr]v or enei8d»
BoKipaadco. Here the verb is changed, while the original particle
inei8dv iu retained.) See also § 77, 1, Note 3.

164 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 74, 2

2. The Imperfect and Pluperfect remain in the In-
dicative unchanged, even after secondary tenses, in the
dependent (as well as in the leading) clauses of indirect
discourse, from the want of those tenses in the Optative.
(§ 70, 2, Note 1, a.)

The Aorist Indicative also regularly remains un-
changed after secondary tenses, when it stood in a
dependent clause of the direct discourse ; not being
changed to the Aorist Optative (as it may be when it
stood in the leading clause, § 70, 2). E. g.

ETKTTfTAai he <r<fii<riv avTo'is tovs ecpopovs (ediaaav) (lireiv, £>s 2>f
p.ev irpoa-dev eiroiovv pi pcpoivro avrols, that they sent them to say that
they blamed them for what they had done before; i. e. 2>v npoodet)
f7roielTeu.cfKp6fj.e6a. Ifiiv. Xen. Hell. Ill, 2, 6.

(Aorist Ind.) "HXni^ov tovs 2iice\ovs Tavrj], ovs perine p,yj/ av,
anavTT]o-eo-6ai, they hoped that the Sikels whom they had sent for
would meet them here. Thuc. VII, 80. 'AvreXeyov . . . Xiyovres pr)
aTrqyyekdai ira ras oirovSas, or ecrerre p-y^av tovs OTrXlras. Id. V,
49. (§ 69, 5.) "EXfyov a>s Sevo(pa>v oi^otro a>s ILevdrfv oiKJjtrcoi' kcu d
i/Trecr^eTo avTa dTroXrfxj/opevos. Xen. An. VII, 7, 55. "'Ekoo'tov
r)pop.nv, et Tives eiev pdprvpes u>v ivavrlov ttjv irpo'iK direboo-av.
Dem. Onet. I, 869, 9.

Note 1. The Aorist Indicative is not changed to the Aorist
Optative in the case just mentioned, as the latter tense in 6uch de-
pendent clauses generally represents the Aorist Subjunctive of the
direct discourse, so that confusion might arise. Thus tyn a evpoi
8a>ativ means he said that he would give whatever he might find (d
evpoi representing d av evpa); but if d evpoi could also represent
d evpov, it might also mean he said that he would give what he
actually had found. In the leading clause the ambiguity is confined
to indirect questions ; and in these the Aorist Indicative is generally
Afcjetained for the same reason. (See § 70, 2, Rem. 2.)

1 When no ambiguity can arise from the change of an Aorist In-

Bmcative to the Optative, this tense may follow the general principle

■ (§ 69, 1), even in dependent clauses of a quotation. This occurs

'^ chiefly in causal sentences after on, &c, because (§ 81, 2), in which

the Subjunctive can never be used. E. g.

Ely? yap Xcyeif as AaKeSaipovioi bia tovto woXeprjcreiav airols, on
ovk e 6 eXrf aaiev per 'AyrjaiXaov i\8e'iv in ovtov ovbe 6va,ai id-
treiav avrbv ev Kvkibi. Xen. Hell. VII, 1. 34. (The direct discourse
was enoXepTjaav fjpiv, on ovk tj & e\fj a- a pev . . . ovbe dvo~ai eidaa
fieV') ' Airrjyffaaadai (<£acri) a>r avoaicoraTov pev elrj elpyao~p,ivos ore
tov dde\<f)eov an ora/iot ttjv Ke(pa\r]V, &o(pa>TaTov Be on tovs (pi\aKov*
KOTape$i<ras <a ' a\vo~e it tov d8e\<fieov Kpep,dptvov tov veKW Hdt

i 76.] COMPOUND SENTENCES. 16/5

II, 121. (Heie on KaTaXvaeie represents on KareXvo-a, because I
took down ; ore dnordpoi (so the Mss.) may also be understood in a
causal sense, since he had cut off. Madvig, however, reads on in
both clauses.) See also § 77, 1, e, and examples.

Note 2. The Imperfect or Pluperfect sometimes stands irregu-
larly in a dependent (as well as in the leading) clause, after a
secondary tense, to represent a Present or Perfect Indicative, which
would regularly be retained or changed to the Present or Perfect
Optative. Such clauses really abandon the construction of indirect
discourse. (See § 70, 2, N. 2 ; § 77, 1, N. 2.) E. g.

EXeyoi> ov Kokcos ttjv EXXaSa eXev6epovv avrov, el av8pas biecpde t-
pev ovre ^etpas dvraipopevovs ovre noXepiovs- Thuc. Ill, 32. (Ou
KaXcos eXevQepois, el 8ia(p Be Ipe t s •) Ovre yap rols Beols ecpn KaXws
e^ftv, et rats peydXais Bvaiais pdXXov v rais piKpals e^aipov. Xen.
Mem. I, 3, 3. (El xaipovo'iv.') Kal ((fin eivat nap' eavrw oaov pf) r] v
dvnXoopevov. Dem. Olymp. 1172, 1. (J'Ocrov pf] io'Tiv dvT]Xa>pevov.)
A pev flX rj<pei rtjs noXeais dno8a>o-eiv (i)yovpnv), I thought that he
would give back what he had taken from the city; i. e. a etXncpev
a7roScoo-ei. Id. F. L. 388, 17.

§ 75. When a dependent clause of the original sen-
tence contains a secondary tense of the Indicative im-
plying the non-fulfilment of a condition, the same mood
and tense are retained in the indirect discourse, after
both primary and secondary tenses. E. g.

*E8oKft, el pf) e<f)daaav £vXXa(36vres rovs avbpas, irpoftodfjvai av rfjv
noXiv. Thuc. VI, 61. (If ecpBao-av had been changed to the Opta-
tive, the construction would have become that of § 76.) Oteade rbv
narepa, el pf] Tipodeov f)v ra £vXa neat eSefjdrj ovrns avrov . . . irapa-
o~xelv to vavXov, e'do~ai av irore, k.t. X., dXX' ovk av (pvXdrreiv Kal ttjv
npfjV Xapftdveiv, ea>s e Kopiaaro ra. eavrov. Dem. Timoth. 1194,
13. Tovrwv ei n r) v dXndes, oi«ro ova av avrfjv Xafielv ; Id. Aph. I,
831, 5. H6Va>s av vpa>v nvdolpnv, nv av wore yvutpnv nepl epov
ei^ere, el pfj e n e r p t n p a p \n cr a dXXa nXeuv a^opijv. Id. Polycl.
1227, 2.

§ 76. An Optative in a dependent clause of the
original sentence (as in the leading clause) is retained
without change of mood or tense in all indirect dis-
course. E. g.

'Emev on eXBoi av els Xoyovs, el oprjpovs Xa/3oi. Xen. Hell. Ill,
1, 20. *Httov av bia tovto rvy^dveiv (So/cel fioi), et n 8e oio~8e nap
uvtuv. Xen. An. VI, 1, 26. "EXeyei/ on ovk av nore npooiro, ent\
07ra£ $tXos avT!»is eyevero, ov?? el en pev pelovs yevoivro en §e kcl-

166 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 76.

Kiov irpu^eiav. lb. I, 9, 10. Aeivbv av rt rradelv aravrov rjXiu^es, el
ttvB oivd* ovrot ra irfTrpayfjifva croi. Dem. r. L. 416, 11.

Remark. Sentences which belong under § 76 arfe often trans-
lated like those which in the direct discourse were expressed by a
Future and a dependent Subjunctive, and which belong under § 74,
1. Thus eXeyev on eXdot av, el tovto yivono (or eXeyev eX6ilv av, el
tovto yivoiTo), as well as eXeyev on eXevcroiTO, et tovto yevoiTO (or
eXeyov eXevcreadai, el tovto yevoiTo), may be translated he said that he
would come if this should happen; although in the first two sentences
the direct discourse was eX6oipi av, el tovto yevoiTO, I would come ij
this should happen ; and in the last two, eXevaopai, iav tovto yivnrai,
I will come if this shall happen.

Single Dependent Clauses in Indirect Discourse.

§ 77. The principles which apply to dependent
clauses of indirect discourse (§ 74, 1 and 2) apply also
to any dependent clause in a sentence of any kind (even
when what precedes is not in indirect discourse), if such
a clause expresses indirectly the thought of any other
person than the speaker, or even a former thought of
the speaker himself.

After primary tenses this never affects the construc-
tion ; but after secondary tenses such a clause may
either take the Optative, in the tense in which the
thought would have been originally conceived, or retain
both the mood and the tense of the direct discourse.
Here, as in § 74, 2, the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and
Aorist Indicative are retained unchanged.

1. This applies especially (a) to clauses depending on the
Infinitive which follows verbs of commanding, advising, wish-
ing, &c ; these verbs implying thought or the expression of
thought, although the Infinitive after them is not in indirect
discourse. (See § 73, 1, Rem.) It applies also (b) to the
Optative (though not to the Indicative) in causal sentences in
which the speaker states the cause as one assigned by othen
(81, 2) ; — (c) to clauses containing a protasis with the apodo-
su» implied in the context (§ 53, Note 2), or with the apodo-

§ 77, 1.] SINGLE DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 107

sis expressed in a verb like davpdfa, &c. (§ 56; ; — (d) to
temporal sentences expressing a past intention or expectation,
especially those introduced by eW and irplv, until, after past
tenses (§ 66, 2, Note 1); — and sometimes (e) even to ordi-
nary relative sentences, which would otherwise take the In-
dicative. E. g.

(a.) 'E/3ovXoero eXdelv, el tovto yevoiro , they wished to go, if (his
should happen. (Here e'dv tovto yevnTai might be used, as the
form in which the wish would originally be conceived.) TaboWav 8i
Kdi Yafipvav e<eXevaev o ti 8i>vaivTO Xa/3oVray peTa8ia>Ktiv' Kal
octtis ei%e tu.s enoptvas ayeXas, eine tovtco /cat apa 7rpd/3ara TroXXa
eXavveiv, ony av avTdv irvvd dvrjT ai ovtci, cos emocpayeir). Xen. Cyr.
VII, 3, 7. (Here o ti dvvatuTo represents 5 tl av 8vvno-0e in the
direct command, while 07177 av irvvBdv^rai represents 07177 av nvvBavrj.)
'EfioiiXovro yap o~(plaiv, e'i Tiva Xdfioiev , imdpxeiv dvTi t&v evdov, r)v
apa Tvxa>ai Tives e^ooyprj pivot. Thuc. H, 5. (*He Xdficopev, and rjv
tv)(coo~i.) Oi 8 dXXot Qrjjddioi, oiis e'8et irapayevio~6ai, e'i ti pi) irpo-
Xcopoir) toIs eo-eXr)Xv86o~iv, eirefiorjdovv. Ibid. ('Edf ti pr) npo-

npoeinov avTols pi] vavpa%eiv KopivBlois, rjv prj ejri Kipicvpav nXe-
wcri Kal peXXcoo~iv dnoftaiveiv. Id. I, 45. (*Hj» pr) TrXirjTe /cat
peXXrjTe.) Kal Trapi/yyeiXav e'Treidi] 8e nrvrj o~e lav o~vveo~K.evao~ptvovs
irdvTas avanaiieo'Qaii /cat eneadai tjvik av tis it apayy iXXrj . Xen.
An. Ill, 5, 18. CEneibdv 8enrvr)aqTe, and ijviK av tis napayyeXXj].)
He pi avTcov Kpvcpa nepnei, KeXevoov . . . prj d(pelvai npiv av aiiTol TtdXiv
Kopio-6a>o~t.v. Thuc. I, 91. (Hp\v Kopiadeiev might have been
used.) Kal 7ToXX<i/ay rots 'A6rjvaiois napt'jvei. r)v apa iroTe /card yr\v
fi tela 6 a> o~ 1 , KaTafidvTas is avTov Tals vavai irpbs unavTas dvdlo-TaoOat.
Id. I, 91. (Et fiiao-Oeiev might have been used.) 'H£iow avrovs
r)yepovas o~(pd~)v yevicrdai /cat Etaucrai'ia pij eirnpiixeiv, rjv nov ft id^rjTai.
Id. I, 95. (Et nov (3td£oiTo might have been used.) 'AcptKvovv-
rai u>s 2irdX/c^i/, fiovXopevot Treicrai ai/Tov, el 8vv atvT o , o~TpaTevo~ai
€7ri tt]v YloTi8aiav. Id. H, 67. "Erotpos r)v dnoTivetv, el Karayvoie v
avToii. Isoc. Trapez. 361 E. § 16. (This example might be placed
also under c.) Einov prj8iva tcov onto-Oev Kiveicrdai, trpiv av 6 irpoadev
r)yr)Tai, I commanded that no one, &c. Xen. Cyr. II, 2, 8.

TlaprjyytXXeTO yap avTois Se/ca pev ovs Qrjpapivrjs an e de li-e \tipo-
Tovrjo-ai., Sena 8e oiis 01 e(j)opoi KeXevoiev. Lys. in Erat. p. 127,
§ 76. (Oi,s dnibeiZe, and ovs av kTxTvojo'iv. See § 74, 2.) 'EidXtvoi
pe tt)v eTrio-ToXrjv rjv eypa-^ra oiKade Goiivai, the letter ivhich I had
ivritten. Xen. Cyr. II, 2, 9. ("Hv ypd-^aipi yvovb\dmeaiijchat£ver
letter I might write, representing r)v av ypd^ffsi) So bdtvr)X6ov,
Thuc. Yll^TT. " L-^

(6.) 'E/cd/cifoi/ oTt arpaTrjyos a>v ovk eiret-dyoi, they abused him
because he did not lead them out (as they said). Thuc. II, 21.
See other examples under § 81, 2. See also § 81, 2, Rem.
(c ) "QiKTeipov, el aXaxroivro, they pitied them, in case they

168 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 77, 1

should be captured: the idea in full is, they pitied them, thinking of
what would befall them if they should be captured. Xen. An. I, 4, 7.
(Ei aKwoovrai might have been used.) Ai86vtos 8* aiira irdpiroXXa
8a>pa TiOpavaTov, el dneXdoi, dneKpivaro, offering him many gifts, if
he wotdd go away. Id. Ages. IV, 6. ('Eav dneXdn might have been
used.) &vXa<as o-vpnepirei, onu>s (pvXa.TToi.ev ai)Tbv, <a\ el tcov dypiav
ti (pave in 8qpia>v, and (to be ready) in case any wild beasts should
appear; his thought being eav ti qbavjj. Id. Cyr. I, 4, 7. See
other examples of the Optative under § 53, N. 2.

H v 8e tis e i rr jj r) e tti yjs n (p i a rj Kivelv to ^pij/xara ravra es aXXo ti,
Bavarov £np.iav enedevro, they set death as the penalty, if any one should
move, or put to vote a motion, to divert this money to any other purpose.
Thuc. II, 24. (Ei e'inoi 17 e'lwj/rjcpio-eiev might have been used.)
TaXXa, nv en vavpa^elv 01 'hdnvaioi ToXp. 17 creocri, irapeanevd^ovTO, i. e.
they made their other preparations, {to be ready) in case the Athenians
should dare, &c. Id. VII, 59. (Their thought was, we will be ready,
in case they shall dare, fjv ToXpfjaaai.) So fjv lataiv, IV, 42. Ov to
Xolttov ep.eXXov e£eiv, el p.f] vavicpaTT)<Tov<Tiv, they toere not likely
to have them (provisions) for the future (as they thought), unless they
should hold the sea. Id. VII, 60. See Lys. Agor. p. 131, § 15.

'Edavpa^e 8' ei tis dperrjv ewayyeXXopevos dpyvpiov ir paTToir o ,
he wondered that any demanded money, &e. Xen. Mem. I, 2, 7.
(But in I, 1, 13, we find e'davp.a£e 8' el p.T] (pavepbv avrols e'o~Tiv, he
wondered that it was not plain.) "E)(aipov dyarrtov el tis edcroi, I re-
joiced, being content if any one would let it pass. Plat. Rep. V, 450
A. Ol< fjir-)({)v8n el ToiovTo icaicbv e'ndyei Tat, he was not ashamed
that he was bringing such a calamity on any one. Dem. Mid. 548, 24.
Ta> 8e p.r)8ev eavrco o~vvei8oTi 8eivov elanet,, el irovnpaiv epycov 8 6 £ e 1 koi-
paweli/ T<a o-ia>nr)crai, it seemed hard, if he was to appear to be impli
cated, &c. ; he thought, 8eiv6v tarriv, el 86£u> (§49, 1, N. 3). Id.
F. L. 351, 18. (Here 8d£oi mijjht have been used, like edaoi above.)
So AESCHIN. Cor. § 10. Kai e'yu> tov Evnvbv e'paKapicra, el 00s dXnd&s
e yet Tavrrjv tt)v Te)(ynv (eat ovtcos e'pp.eXa>s 8i8do~Ke 1 , / congratulated
him, if he really had this art (as he thought). Plat. Apol. 20 B
(Here eyoi and SiSao-zcoi might have been used.)

(</.) '2rrov8as enoifjaavTo, ea>s dnayyeXd e in ra Xe^devra eis
\aKe8aip.ova, they made a truce, (to continue) until what had been said
should be announced at Sparta ; i. e. eu>s av dnayyeXQfi, which
might have been retained. Xen. Hell. IH, 2, 20. *£2po-e 8' en\
Kpacnvbv Bope'rjv, irpb 8e KvpaT ea£ev, ewj o ye 4>air;fcecrcri (piXnpeTp.oio'i
p.iyein, until Ulysses should be among the Phaeacians ; i. e. ttos av
fiiyfj. Od. V, 385. So elcos BeppaivoiTo, Od. IX, 376. 'Annyopeve
p.n8eva (3dXXeiv, irpiv Kvpos ep-nXnaOe in Qnpav, until Cyrus should
be satisfied. Xen. Cyr. I, 4, 14. (His words were npiv av ep.-
TrXnadjj.) Oi 8e p.evavTes earao'av, oTnrdre nvpyos Ayniaw (iXXos eneX-
0u>v Tpciicov opurjo-eie koi ap£eiav iroXtpoio, i. e. they stood wait-
ing for the time when, &c. II IV, 335. (Here ottotov 6pp.r)<rn, &c.
might be used.) So H. II, 794. npovKtvncrav to ariobos, a>s navcro-
p-evovs tov 8iu>yp.ov, eire\ a<pas i'Sot*" TrpooppTjaavras, when they
should see them, &c. Xen. Cyr. I, 4, 21. f^—.

§ 77, 2.J SINGLE DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 169

Oi yap 8n crcptas dniei 6 8e6i tt)s djroiKins, npiv 8r) a n i koi vrat «»
avrrjv Aiftvnv. Hi*" IV, 156. ('Attikoivto might be used.) Of
8e Kopivfiim ov ivpoed<.pr]8rj<Tav i^vpirkelv, irpXv ra "ladpia, & Tort rjv,
Steopra Ta>erti>. Thuc. VIII, 9.

(e.) Kai rjree trrjpa I8ea-Qai, o tti pa. ol yapfipoio irdpa TJpoiroio
(bepoiTO, he asked to see the token, which (he said) he was bringing
from Proetus, i. e. he said (pepopai. II. VI, 177. KaTTjyopeov tQ>v
AlyivrjTecov to. Trciroirj <oie v 7rpo86vTes T^v'EXAdSa, i. e. they accused
them for what (as they said) they had done. Hdt. VI, 49. So ra
neirovdais (in, I, 44. KaXei t6v Aaiov, pvi'jprjv naXauZ-v aneppaTcdv
trover, v(p L>v ddvoi pev avTos. rrjv 8e riKTOvaav Xinoi, by which
(as she said) he had perished himself, and had left her the mother, &c.
Soph. O. T. 1245. (If the relative clause contained merely the
idea of the speaker, Wave and e\ine would be used. Here no am-
biguity can arise from the use of the Aorist Optative. See § 74, 2,
N. 1.)

Note 1. Causal sentences are usually constructed without re-
ference to this principle. See § 81, with Rem.

Note 2. The Imperfect and Pluperfect occasionally represent
the Present and Perfect Indicative in this construction, as in § 74, 2,
N. 2. Such clauses are simply not included in the indirect discourse.
E.g.

'Eroipos rjv, el pev tovtcov ri elpya<TTO, 8Lkt]v 8ovvat, (I 8' dwo\v
6ein, ap^eiv, he was ready, if he had done any of these things, to be
•punished ; but if he should be acquitted, to hold his command. Thuc.
VI, 29. (Eipyaaro represents e'lpyaapai, while et dnoXvBfin repre-
sents eav anoKvOSa.)

Note 3. "Av is occasionally retained with relatives and temporal
particles in sentences of this kind, even when the Subjunctive to
which they belonged has been changed to the Optative. See § 74,
I, Note 2. E. g.

Tovs be XapjSdvovTas rrjs opiXias piaBbv dv8pano8io~Tas eavTutv ane-
tdXei, 8id to dvayKaiov avTois .elvai 8iakeyea8ai nap' &>v av Xdfioie v
rov pio-86v, because they were obliged (as he said) to converse with those
from whom they received the pay. Xen. Mem. I, 2, 6. (Here av av
Kdfioiev represents hv av Xdfieooiv.) Km' poi rd8' rjv npoppnra, . . . to
fpdppaKOV tovto <ra>£eiv e'pe, ea>s av dprt'yptcrrof appoaaipt ttov.
Soph. Trach. 687. (See Schneiclewin's note.) 'n£lovv avTovs pa-
&Tiyovv tov eK$odevTa, eas a v TaXrjdrj 86 £e le v avTols Xiyeiv. ISOC.
Trap. 361 D. § 15. Xaipeiv ecorjs av KoXovKaTroKpivaio, ea>s av to. an
tKeivns oppnde'vra aKej^aio, yotirjEouidJn^^ ylnilfliould

hTJv^exarntneThr&c. Plat.' Phaed. 101 TJT ('l'he~drrect thought of
the person addressed would be, ecus av a-Ke-^oypai.) See § 34, 1.

It is doubtful whether edv was ever used with the Optative in this
way

2. Upon this principle (§ 77) final and object clauses with

170 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. [§ 77, 2.

Iva, oncos, firj, &c, after secondary tenses, admit the double con-
struction of indirect discourse. This appears in the frequent
use of the Subjunctive or the Future Indicative instead of
the Optative in these sentences, after secondary tenses, when
either of these is the form in which the purpose would have
been originally conceived. Thus we may say either ffXdev ha
X b oi or Ti\8ei> ha 1 8 j], he came that he might see; the latter
being, allowed because the person referred to would himself
have said epxopai *"a X8a>. See § 44, 2, § 45, and § 46, with
the examples.

Note. The principles of § 74 and § 77 apply to clauses which
depend upon final and object clauses, as these too are considered as
standing in indirect discourse E. g.

'TLXdovrcs es AaKe8aipova (enpacrcrov) 6Va>s eroipdo-aivro ripco-
plav, tjv 8er). Thuc. I, 58. (Here et 8eoi might have been used.
See § 55, 2.) 'Ecpoftelro yap pr) ol Aa<e8aip6vioi acpds, Snore aacpcos

/taKovo-fiav , ovkcti dcpcocriv. Id. I, 91. (Here Snorav aKov o~ (oai v
l\ is changed to Snore aKovaeiav, although dcpcoaiv is retained by § 77,

I 2.) Meya to SeoseyTvero pr) napanXeovres ol UeXonovvr]o~ioi, el xai a»s
fir/ 8tevooiivro peveiv, nopdcocriv run noXeis, the fear was great lest
the Peloponnesians as they sailed by, even if under the circumstances
they had not been thinking of remaining, might destroy the cities. Id.
Ill, 33. (Here bievoovvro is retained by § 74, 2.)

"Ottcoi; and"0 in Indirect Quotations.

§ 78. 1. In a few cases ottox; is used in indirect quo-
tations where we should expect «? or oti. This occurs
chiefly in poetry. E. g.

Tour* avro fit) pot cppd£', on cos ovk ei KaKos- SOPH. O. T. 548.

*Ai>a£, epco fiev oii^ on cos rd^ovs vno dvemvovs 'iKavco. Id. Ant. 223.

So Ant. 685 : onms av pr) Xtyeis- ' Avcineicrov ok cos pot dpeivco earl

ravra ovrco noteopeva. ill) I. I. 37. So 111, 115. So oncos ndvra

enio-rapat, Flat. Euthyd. 290 E.

2. In a few passages in Homer we find o (the neuter
of o?) used for oti. E. g.

TiyvcocTKcov o ol avros vneipex^ x^P115 'AttoXXgw, knowing that Apollo
himself held over him his hands. II. V, 433. Ev w ko.1 fjpels i8pev o
tol ade'vos ovk enieiKrov. II. VHI, 32. Aevaaere yap to ye ndvres,
o poi yepas epxfTat aXXg, that my prize goes elsewhere. D. I, 120.
So Od. XII, 295.

§ SI, l.J "On BEFORE DIRECT QUOTATIONS. 171

Note. 'Odovpena and ouwca in the tragedians, and ovixxa in Ho-
mer, are sometimes used like on or las. that ; as dyytXXe 66ovveKa
nBvrjK 'Opeo-njs, Soph. El. 47 ; lodi roiro, oZvcku "EWrjves eapev,
Id. Phil 232. See Soph. El. 1478, Traeh. i>34 (ovveica with Opt.}:
and II. XI, 21 ; Odyss. V, 216 ; XIII, 309.

Otl before Direct Quotations.

§ 70. Even direct quotations are sometimes introduced by
6'rt, without further change in the construction. "0™ thus
used cannot be expressed in English. E. g.

O 8e dneKptvaro on "Oi)S' ft yevo'ip.t]v, co KOpf, <toi y av irort trt
oo£aipi." Xen. An. I, 6, 8. 'AncKpivaro on uTQ Sio-nora, ol $jj,
K.r.X." Id. Cyr.s VII, 3, 3. Eittc 8' on "Ets Kaipo* ^«s," tyi;,
" 07rtoy r^s StV?;y (ikouo-t;?." lb. Ill, 1, 8. *H tpovpev npos avrovs, or i
" 'HSiKtt yap i)pds r\ noXis, Ka\ ovk 6p6a>s rfjv Sintjv eicpive" — ravra fj
rl epoiptv; Plat. Crit. 50 B. So Phaed. 60 A. See also Hot

n, ii5.

SECTION V.

Causal Sentences.

§ 80. Causal sentences express the cause or reason

of something stated in the leading sentence. They

may be introduced by ot*, Stori or hto-wep, ovveica or

o0owe/ca, and &>?, because; or by eirei, eTreihq, ore,

OTTore, evT€, and sometimes ottov, since, seeing that.

Remark. "On and «s in this causal sense must not be con-
founded with on and as, that, in indirect quotations; and «r«,
tTTfiBr), ore, and Snore must not be confounded with the same parti-
cles in temporal sentences.

§81. 1. Causal sentences regularly take the In-
dicative, after both primary and secondary tenses ; past
causes being expressed by the past tenses of the Indica-
tive. The negative particle is ov. E. g.

Ktydfro yap Aavatov, on pa dvqcneovTas opdro. II. I, 56. Xatoue

172 CAUSAL SENTENCES. [§ 81, 1.

vos, or afjiTTov'A)(a.i5)vol8ev eriaas- 11.1,244. Anpoffopos j3<i(rt-
Xevs, enei ovTidavolaiv dvda ere is ■ H. I, 231. M17 8' ovto>s KXenrt
j/ow, eVrei ou na peXe v o~ e ai ov6e /xe ive'io-eis. H. I, 132. Noiiow
ava crrparbv a>po~e Kanrjv, oXtKovro 8e Xao\, ovveKa rbv Xpvar/v nriprjo'
dp^Tr/pa Arpet8rjs. 11. I, 11. Kal rpirjpns 8e roi f] o~eo~ayp4vrj dvdpammv
8id t'i liXXo (pofiepov eo~Ti 7) on Ta\v irXel ; 81a ri 8e aXXo oAi>7roi aXX?)-
Xois etcriv 01 epnXeovres i) Sidrt ev rti^ei KaOnvrai ; Xen. Oec. VIII,
8. Oi epol (piXoi ovTcos e\ovres pepi epov 8iaTeXovcriv, ov 8td to (biXeiv
epe, dXXd 8i6nep xai airoi av o'lovrai fieXrio~Toi yiyveadai. Id. Mem.
IV, 8, 7. (See § 42, 2, Note.) Ilpoy raiira Kpinrre prj8ei>, a>s 6 ndvd'
6pa>v koX iravr aKovcou ndvr duanrvo-aei \pouos, i- e. since time
develops all things. Soph. Hippon. Fr. 280. Meya 8e to opov Tpa-

fjvai, eiret kq\ toIs Orjpiois nodos tis eyy [yverai to>i> o~wrpo(f)a>v.
en. Mem. II, 3, 4. "Or' ovv irapaivova ovbev es irkeov 7rota>, 'uteris
ddnypai- Soph. O. T. 918. 'Onore ovv noXis pev ray I8ias £vp<popds
01a re (peoeiv, els 8e e/cacrror tos eiceivTjs d8vvaTos (sc. e'<rTt), it&s ov
Xprj nduras dpvveiv avrrj ; Thuc. II, 60. "Ore toIvvv ruvd' ovtu>s
'4\ « ' 1 irpoarjicet wpodvpois edeXeiv aKoveiv ra>v fiovXopeviov ovpfiovXeveiv.
Dem. 01. I, 9, 3. For evre, since, see Soph. Aj. 715, O. C. 84; for
8nov, see Hdt. I, 68.

2. When, however, it is implied that the cause is as-
signed by some other person than the speaker, the prin-
ciple of indirect discourse (§ 77, 1) applies to causal
sentences.

This has no effect upon the form after primary tenses ;
but after secondary tenses it allows the verb to stand in
the Optative, in the tense originally used by the person
who assigned the cause. E. g.

Tbv IlepiKXea. eVaia£bi>, ori aTparnyos tav ovk eirei-dyoi, they abused
Pericles, because being general he did not lead them out. Thuc. II,
21. (This states the reason assigned by the Athenians for reproach-
ing Pericles : if Thucydides had wished to assign the cause merely
on his own authority, he would have used Sri ovk ine^yev.) Tovs
avvovras e'8o<ei iroieiv dire-)(e(r8ai TOtv dvoo~iav, eneiTrep rjyrj o~aivr o
pr]8ev av noTe hv irpdrroiev deovs 8taXadeiv. Xen. Mem. I, 4, 19.
(See § 74, 2, N. 1.) Oio~8a enaiveaavra avrov ("Opnpov) t6v 'Ayape-
pvova, ws fiaaiXevs ei'»; dyados, because {as he said) he was a good
king. Id. Symp. IV, 6. SowseupijKoi, because (as he said) he
had found, Hdt. I, 44.

Remark. We should suppose that in causal sentences of the
second class (§ 81, 2) the mood and tense by which the cause would
have been originally stated might also be retained, as in ordinary
indirect discourse; so that in the first example above (Thuc. II. 21)
ori ovk eir(£dy(i might also be used, in the same sense as on oil*

§ 82 ] EXPRESSION OF A WISH. 173

eif|dyo,. This, however, seems to have been avoided, to pre-
vent the ambiguity which would arise from the three forms, eVe^rjye v,
*Vf£dyot, and «rf£dy«. It will be remembered that the first form,
which "3 the regular one in causal sentences of the first class (§ 81, 1),
is allowed only by exception in indirect quotations (§ 70, 2, N. 2) ;
for in indirect discourse the tenses of the Indicative regularly de-
note time present, past, or future relatively to the leading verb ; while
in causal sentences (as in most other constructions) they regularly
denote time absolutely present, past, or future. (See § 9.)

Note 1. The Optative in causal sentences appears to have been
used only after on, as, and hrei. It is not found in Homer.

Note 2. If a cause is to be expressed by an apodosis in which
the Indicative or Optative with av is required, those forms can of
course follow the causal particles. E. g.

AeofjLai ovv o~ov 7rapap.ei.va1 rjp.1v ' as eya ot>8' a v ivbs rjbiov anov-
ffat/ji r) (rov, I beg you then to remain with us ; as there is not one whom
I should hear more gladly than you. Plat. Prot. 335 D. N0i> Si
tneior) ovk e8e\fis Kcu epoi tis acr^okla earn /cai ovk av oios r e'trjv troi
irapapeivai anoreivovn p-aKpoiis Xoyovs — eXBeiv yap Troi pe Set — ct/u*
tnel Kat ravT av 'lams ova drjdas o~ov tJkovov. lb. 335 0.

Note 3. For relative causal sentences, see § 65, 4. For the
causal use of the Participle, see § 109, 4.

SECTION VI.

Expression op a Wish.

Remark. The Greek has one form to express a wish re-
ferring to a future object, and another to express one referring
to a present or past object which (it is implied) is not or was
not attained. To the former class belong such wishes as 0
that he may come ! — 0 that this may happen ! — Utinam veniat ;
to the latter, such as 0 that this had happened! — 0 that this
■were true ! — Utinam hoc factum esset, — Utinam hoc verum
esset

§ 82. If the wish refers to the future, the Optative is
used after the particles of wishing eide or el yap (nega-

174 EXPRESSION OF A WISH. [§ 82.

tively, et0e pur), ei yap /j,rj, or simply furf), 0 that, 0 if,
would that ( 0 that not, &c). Eude and ei yap may, how-
ever, be omitted ; and thus the Optative often stands
alone to express a wish.

The Present Optative refers to a continued or re-
peated action or state in the future ; the Aorist (which
is the most common) refers to a momentary or single
act in the future. E. g.

A* yap ipaii roo-o-f]p8e 6eo\ 8vvapip trapadelev, O that the Gods
would clothe me with so much strength! Od. Ill, 205. hlff ovra>s,
JZvpaie , (pi\ov Ail irarpl yipoio, mayest thou become in like manner
a friend to father Zeus. Od. XIV, 440. 'Ypiv pep 6eo\ 8olep 'OXvp-
7ria 8a)par e\opres ennepaai Hpidpoio noXiv, ev 8' oi'/caS' LKeo~8ai, may
the Gods grant you, &c. D. I, 18. M17 pap danovSi ye nal duettos
dnoXoipnu. H. XXII, 304. To pep vvv ravra it pr\ aaois raTrep ev
Xepcri c^eir, may you for the present continue to do what you now have
in hand. HDt. VII, 5. Gijo-a) npvraveV, r; prjKert £(pr)v e'ya>, or may
I no longer live. Arist. Nub. 1255. Nikgj'j; f o n ndaiv vplu
peWet avvoitretv, and may that opinion prevail, &c. Dem. Phil. I,
55, 6. Tedvairjv, ort pot pnKeri ravra peXoi. MiMNERM. I, 2.
UXoiktiov 8e vopi£oipi rov <ro(p6v. Plat. Phaedr. 279 C. *Q nal,
yevoio narpbs evrvxecrrepos- Soph. Aj. 550. Ovrca vucrja aipi t
tyas ko\ popi£oipnv aocpos, on this condition may I gain the prize
(in this case) and be (always) considered wise. Arist. Nub. 520.
(See Note 4.) Ei#\ a Xwore, <pi\os fjulp ye'i/oio. Xen. Hell. IV,
1,38. Ei yap yepoipnp, renpop, dvri aov penpos. Eur. Hippol.
1410. Svpepey Koi pep ravra u>s ftovkopeda. TllUC. VI, 20.
Avrbs del eVio-rqo-ei Kal anapra, &v eya> fiovkapat. — 'AXXa /3ovX)j-
Beirjs, may you only be willing! Plat. Eutbyd. 296 D. So elep,
be it so, — well.

MrjKer eneir '08vcrrp Kaprj topoicriv eirein, pr]8y en T^Xe/xayoio
•narrjp k(k\t] pepos tinp, then may the head of Ulysses no longer
remain on his shoulders, and no longer may I be called the father of
Telemachus. H. II, 259. (See Rem. 1.)

From its use in wishes the Optative Mood (eyKXiais fvKnict))
received its name.

Remark 1. The Future Optative was not used in wishes in
classic Greek. The Perfect was probably not used except in the
signification of the Present (§ 17, N. 3), as in the last example. If
such a phrase as eWe p€pikt)koi were used, it would mean O that il
may prove (hereafter) that he has been victorious ! See § 18, 1.

Remark 2. In Homer we occasionally find the Present Optative
in a wish referring to present time, where latei writers would have
used the Imperfect Indicative. E. g.

§ 82.] OPTATIVE, 175

Ei yap eya>v ovtco ye Aios nals alyto\oio
E i T) v fjfMira ndvra, r e k o i 8e pe norvia *Hpij,
Tioipnv 8* is Tier' '\6j]va'ij) Kai 'AttoXXwi/,
Q,s vvv rjpepn fj8e kcikov (pepei ' Apyeioio~iv,

0 that I were the son of Zeus, and that Hera were my mother, and thai

1 were honored as Athene and Apollo are honored, &c. II. XIII, 825.
(Here re/coi is nearly equivalent to p^rnp eln : cf. J re/covcra, O mother,
quoted under § 83, 1.)

12 yepov, eid', <os dvpos evl <TTt]dfO-(Ti <ptXoto~iv
Qs rot yovvaQ' enoiro, (Siij 8e rot epnt8os fin'
AXXa o~e yrjpas relpei opo'aov • as o(pe\ev rts
Av8p<i)v ciXXos e'xeiv, crv 8e Kovpore'poicri pereivai.

The idea is, 0 that thy knees equalled thy heart in strength, &c. H.

IV, 313. At the end we have the more regular form, ocpeXev tu

SKXos ixfivi would that some other man had it (y^pas). § 83, 2, N. 1.
Et#* coy rj j3 a> o t p. i , fiin 8e poi epne8os tin'
T» K€ rax dvri]aeie pdxi? tcopvdatoXos "Eicrwp,

0 that I were again so young, &c. II. VII, 157. See VII, 133.
For a similar exceptional use in Homer of the Present Optative

in protasis, see § 49, 2, N. 6 (b). The optatives in the examples

quoted above may perhaps be explained as referring to the future,

and translated, 0 that I might be, &c.

Note 1. In the poets, especially Homer, the Optative without
tide or el yap sometimes expresses a concession or permission ; and
sometimes an exhortation, in a sense approaching that of the Impera-
tive. E. g.

Avtis 'Apyeinv 'EXevnv Wlevekaos ayotro, Menelaus may take back
Argive Helen. H. IV, 19. Tedvains, w Upolr, ij Kaicrave BeXXe-
pocpovrnv, either die, or kill Bellerophontes. II. VI, 164. 'AXXa rts
AoXlov KaXeaeie , let some one call Dolios. Od. IV, 735. So
Aesch. Prom. 1049 and 1051.

Note 2. The poets sometimes use the simple « (without -Be or
yap) with the Optative in wishes. E. g.

'A\X' ei tis ku\ Tovo~8e peroixdpevos /caXe aeiev. H. X, 111.
Ei pot yevoiro (pdoyyos ev jSpa^i'ocrii'. EUR. Hec. 836.

Note 3. The poets, especially Homer, sometimes use i>s before
the Optative in wishes. This i>s cannot be expressed in English ;
and it is not to be translated so (as if it were written 2>s), or con-
founded with ovra>s used as in Note 4. E. g.

'Qs dnoXoiro Kal aWos, oris roiavrd ye pe(oi, 0 that any other also
may perish, kc. Od. I, 47. See Od. XXI, 201. 'Qs 6 rd8e nopi>»
okoir, et pot depis rd8' av8dv. Soph. El. 126.

Note 4. Ovras, thus, on this condition, may be prefixed to the
Optative in protestations, where a wish is expressed upon some con-
dition ; which condition is usually added in another clause. E. g.

176 EXPRESSION OF A WISH. [§ 82.

OvT(»j ovcuade tovtow, arj TrepubrjTe p,e, may you enjoy these on this
condition, — do not neglect me. Dem. Aph. II, 842, 9-

Note 5. The Optative in wishes belonging under this head never
takes the particle av. It' a wish is expressed in the form of an ordi-
nary apodosis, as 7r<os av oXotfirjv, how gladly I would perish (i. e. if
J could), it does not belong here, but under § 52, 2.

§ 83. 1. If the wish refers to the present or the
past, and it is implied that its object is not or was not
attained, the secondary tenses of the Indicative are
used. The particles of wishing here cannot be omitted.

The distinction between the Imperfect and Aorist In-
dicative is the same as in protasis (§ 49, 2) ; the Imper-
fect referring to present time or to a continued or
repeated action in past time, and the Aorist to a mo-
mentary or single action in past time. E. g.

EWf tovto tiro In, would that he were now doing this, or would
that he had been doing this; e'ide tovto eiroinaev, would that he had
done this ; tide ?jv d^ndes, ivould that it were true; tide urj eytvtro,
would that it had not happened.

EW e f x e s , co re/covcra, j3e\Ttovs (ppevas, would that thou, O
mother, hadst a better understanding. Eur. El. 1061. Et yap Toaav-
tt)v bvvap.iv fi^of, would that I had so great power. Id. Ale. 1072.
Ei'#e crot, o> ILepiKkeis, Tore a-vvfyfuofirjv. Xen. Mem. I, 2, 46.
"la, }j.jj yas eVi t-evas Oavelv e\pj] f(f , O that thou hadst not chosen to
die in a foreign land. Soph. O. C. 1713.

Remark. The Indicative cannot be used in wishes without t"6e
or el yap, as it would occasion ambiguity ; this cannot arise in the
case of the Optative, which is not regularly used in independent
sentences without av, except in wishes. The last example quoted
above shows that the Indicative with ur) alone can be used in nega-
tive wishes. (This passage is often emended; see, however, Her-
mann's note on the passage, and on Eur. Iph. Aul. 575.)

2. The Aorist a>$ekov and sometimes the Imperfect
axfyeWov of ocf)ei\a), debeo, may be used with the In-
finitive in wishes of this class, with the same meaning
as the secondary tenses of the Indicative. The Present
Infinitive is used when the wish refers to the present or
to continued or repeated past action, and the Aorist
(rarely the Perfect) when it refers to the past.

§ 83, 2.] *Q(peXoi> WITH THE INFINITIVE. 177

S2(f>e\ov or uxf>e\\ov may be preceded by the particles
of wishing, e'cde, el jap, or m (not ov~). E. g.

"QqbeXf tovto noiflv, would that he were (now') doing this (lit. he
ought to be doing it), or would that he had (habitually) done this
(lit. he ought to have done this). *Q0eXe tovto 7rotJ)o-at, would that
he had done this.

Q.V o(peXov TOiTcnnv nep e yo)f ev b<i>p.ao~i fioipav valeiv, oi 8' uv-
8pes coot ep,p.evai ot tot oXovto, 0 that I were living with even a
third part, Sfc, and that those men were safe who then perished. Od.
IV, 97. Mi) o(peXov vtKtip roiwS' eV dedXa, 0 that I had not been
victorious in such a contest. Od.' XI, 548. See H. XVIII, 86, at
oqbeXes oi) usv avdt vaieiv, IlnXevs f$e 6vt]tt)v dyayeadai. Trjv
o(peX' iv vr)ecro~i KaraKTapev "Aprepis to), 0 that Artemis had slain
her, &c. H. XIX, 59. 'OXetrdai axptXov Tjjb' f]pApa, 0 that I had
perished on that day. Soph. O. T. 1157. Elff axpeX' 'Apyovs p>)
dtanraadat o~Ku(pos Ko\xa>v e's cuav tcvaveas SvpTrXr/ydSas. Eur
Med. 1. Et yap afpeXov oioi re ei'vot ot 7roXXot ra p.syio~Ta Kaita
i£tpyd£eo-dai, 0 that the multitude were able, &c. Plat. Grit. 44 D
Mij ttot &(pe\ov Xiirclv ttjv 'S.KxJpov, 0 that I never had left Scyros
OOPH. Phil. 969. Aid' apa ndvres "E-KTopos a> (p e X e r' aWl doijs eVl
vvvo-l ire<pdo~6ai, would that ye all had been slain instead of Hector.
U. XXIV, 253. 'Avfipos i'neiT axpeXXov dp-fivovos elvai aVorrtf,
6s fjdrj vepeaiv re /cat ato-^ea 7roXX' dvdpd>Tr<ov, 0 that I were the wife oj
a better man, who knew, &c. II. VI, 350. (For jfSq, see § 64, 2.)

For the origin of this construction, see § 49, 2, N. 3 (b) and (c).

Note 1. The secondary tenses of the Indicative are not used in
Homer to express wishes ; axpeXov with the Infinitive being gener-
ally used when it is implied that the wish is not or was not fulfilled.
(See § 82, Rem. 2.) The latter construction is used chiefly by the
poets.

Note 2. Neither the secondary tenses of the Indicative nor the
form with axpeXov in wishes can (like the Optative) be preceded by
the simple et (without -de or yap).

'Qs, used as in § 82, N. 3, often precedes axpeXov, &c. in Homer,
and rarely in the Attic poets. E. g.

HXvdes eV noXepov ; a>s co<fieXes avrod' oXeadai. II. HI, 428.
Qs acpeXX' 'T&Xet/Tjs duo (pi/Xov dXe'o-dat. Od. XIV, 68.
'Os irplv StStx£at y axfieXes /xe'cros diappayr/uai. ARIST. Kan. 955.

Remark. Expressions of a wish with the Optative or In-
dicative after eWe, el yap, &c. were originally protases with the
apodoBis suppressed. Thus, et yap yevoiro, 0 that it may happen
(lit. if it would only happen), implies an apodosis like eifvxnt «'
8* L

178 IMPERATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE IN COMMANDS [§ 83, 2.

«»;«>, I should be fortunate, or I should rejoice ; el yap eyevero, 0
that it had happened, implies one like (vtvxtjs av r\v {if it had
only happened, I should have been fortunate). It will be seen
that the use of the moods and tenses is precisely the same as
in the corresponding classes of protasis (§ 50, 2 ; § 49, 2). The
analogy with the Latin is the same as in protasis : — el yap
tovto Trotot'jj (or iroiTjo-uev), O si hoc faciat, 0 that he may do this ;
el yap tovto eVo/ei, O si hoc faceret, 0 that he were doing this ;
el yap tovto (iroirjcrev, O si hoc fecisset, 0 that he had done this ;
el yap pft iytvtTo, utinam ne factum esset, 0 that it had not hap-
pened.

The form with axpeXov and the Infinitive, on the other hand,
is an apodosis with a protasis implied. See § 49, 2, N. 3, b.

SECTION VII.

Imperative and Subjunctive in Commands, Bxhorta
tions, and Prohibitions.

§ 84. The Imperative is used to express a com-
mand, an exhortation, or an entreaty. E. g.

neye, speak thou. &evye, begone ! 'EX#er<i>, let him come. Xcu-
povToov, let them rejoice. "Epxeo-dov ickio~ir)v Ur]\r]id8eco 'A^tX^or.
H. I, 322. Zev, Zev, 6eo)pot rcov8e irpaypaTap yevov. Aesch.
Choeph. 246.

Note 1. The Imperative is often emphasized by aye (or
ay ere), cpepe, or t8i, come. These words may be in the sin-
gular when the Imperative is in the plural, and in the second
person when the Imperative is in the third. E. g.

Enr-aye pot Kai Tov8e, (ptkov tcko?, oo~tis 58' io-t'iv. II. Ill, 192.
'AXX' aye plpvere navTes, evKvrjpi8es 'A^aioi. II. II, 331. Ba07c' 16 1,
ovXe oveipt, 6oas en\ vrjas 'Axaicov. II. II, 8. "Aye 817 dicovvaTe.
Xen. Apol. § 14. *AyfT« bemv^o-aTe. Xen. Hell. V, 1, 18. *cp'
elare 8rj p.01. Soph. Ant. 534. &epe 81) pot, roSe elne. Plat. Crat.
385 B. *l#t 8fj \ei-oi> fjplv npcoTou tovto. Xkn. Mem. Ill, 3, 3.
*l 6 1 wv napioTaadov. Aiust. Ran. 1378. "idi wv \iftai><i>T6i> 8evpa
ns Kal nvo Sarw. lb. 371.

§ 85.] SUBJUNCTIVE. 179

Remark. <J>epe is not used in this way in Homer.

Note 2. The poets sometimes use the second person of the Im-
perative with nas in hasty commands. E. g.

"kieove nas , hear, every one! Arist. Thesm. 372. Xa>p«t 8eiipo
nas innperns' ro^eve, nale " a(pev86vrjv ris pot 86r<o. Id. Av. 1187.
"Aye 8f] ata>na nas dvrjp. Id. Ran. 1125.

Note 3. The Imperative is sometimes used in relative
clauses depending on an interrogative (usually olvda), where
we should expect the relative clause to be completed by 8el
with an Infinitive, and the Imperative to stand by itself. E. g.

'AXX' okt#' 6 8 paaov ; r<5 cnce'Xet 6kve ri\v nerpav, but do you knoio
what to do? strike the rock with your leg! Arist. Av. 54. (We
should expect here olaff' 6 8ei bpaaai ; 8pdao:> • k. t. X., do you know
-chat to do f if so, do it : viz. strike the rock, &c.) Oiad' o poi avp-
npa^ov, do you know what you must do for mef if so, do it. Eur.
Heracl. 451. Oiadd wv a poi yevea6a> ; 8eap.a rois ^evourt npotrdes,
do you know what must be done for me (a Set poi yeveo-Qai) ? let it be
done then (yevea-Bco), viz. put chains on the strangers. Id. Iph. Taur.
1203. Oia-8' ws iroiTj(rov; Soph. O. T. 543. (Compare Eur.
Cycl. 131, olad' ovv o 8pda-eis ; dost thou know what thou art to do?)

Note 4. The Imperative sometimes denotes a mere concession,
and sometimes a supposition (where something is supposed to be
true for argument's sake). E. g.

IlXovret re yap tear oikov • edv 8' dnfj tovtcov to xaipeiv, roXX'
e*ya> Kanvov aKids ovic av npiaipnv. Soph. Ant. 1168. Ilpoere t7rdr<a
riva <pi\u<a)s o re apx<ov /cat 6 18io)Tns. suppose that both the ruler and
the private man address, &c. Xen. Hier. VIII, 3.

§ 85. The first person of the Subjunctive (usually
in the plural) is used in exhortations, supplying the
want of a first person to the Imperative. Aye
(ayere) or <£eoe, come, often precedes. E. g.

"la>uev, let us go. "l8copev, let us see. Ot<a8s nep a-vv vnva\ vea>-
fie&a, rdv8e 8" ewpev, let us sail homeward with our ships, and leave
him. II. II, 236. 'AXX' el 8o<e'i, n\e to pev, 6ppdcrda> ra^vs SoPn.
Pliil. 526. 'Eniaxfrou, pad wpev . lb. 539. 'Em'tr^es, ep@d\o>-
pev els aXXoi/ Xoyoi/. Eur. El. 962. UapSype v re ovv Zxrnep
Kvpos KeXevei, da k a pev re 8C hv pakio-ra 8vvncr6pe8a Ha-re^eif a
8el, Trape x^pe v re fjpds avrovs, k.t. X. Xen. Cyr. VIII, I, 5.
'AXX' aye 8', £>s av eya>v e'lnai, nei8cope8a ndvres. H. II, 139.
'AXX' aye 8r) na\ vm pe8ape8a 8ovpi8os aXfcqs. II. IV, 418. *ep«
ftr) 8ianepdvcopev \6yovs. Eur. Androm. 333. AeCre qblXoi row
£*~tt>ov epconeOa. Od. VIII, 133.

130 IMPERATIVE ANP SUBJUAOilVE IN COMMANDS. [§ 85.

Note 1. The first person singular of the Subjunctive, when it is
nsed in this way, almost always takes aye (ay ere) or <pe pc, unlesj
tsoine other Imperative precedes. E. g.

'AX\' aye 817 to. XPW'17' api6 fit] a a> nai (Su/iai. Od. XITI,
215. \AAX' aye<9' lp.lv revxe eveiKca 6a>pr)x8*)val- 0(1- XXII, 139.
& a ir re pe otti rdxicrra, wvXas 'Ai'Sao neprjcro), bury me as
quickly as possible; let me pass the gates of Hades. II. XXI II, 71.
$tp okovo-o), come, let me hear. Hdt. I, 11. 2iya, irvods padm'
(pepe npbs ovs &d\a>. Eur. Here. F. 1059. 'Eni^x**' aldrjv rav
to-wOtv eicpddo. Id. Hippol. 567. Aeye &j, i?'->. Plat. Rep. V,
157 C.

Note 2. The second and third persons of the Subjunctive are
not regularly used in affirmative exhortations, the Imperative being
the regular form in these persons. (For the Aorist Subjunctive
with pi) in prohibitions, see § 86.)

In some cases the Optative in wishes, in the second and third
persons, has almost the force of an exhortation. (§ 82, N. 1.)

In a few exceptional cases, we find even the second person of the
Subjunctive in exhortations, like the first person, but always accom-
panied by q> e p t . E.g.

<Pep\ to TfKvov, vvv<a\ to t?js vfjcrov pddys. Soph. Phd. 300.

For the Future Indicative used elliptically in exhortations after
oncos, see § 45, Note 7.

Remark. The preceding rules apply only to affirmative exhorta-
tions : these should be carefully distinguished from prohibitions with
pi] (§ 86). The use of the Imperative in prohibitions is generally
confined to the Present tense.

§ 86. In prohibitions, in the second and third per-
sons, the Present Imperative or the Aorist Subjunctive is
used after M and its compounds. The former expresses
a continued or repeated, the latter a single or momen-
tary prohibition.

In the first person (where the Imperative is wanting)
the Present Subjunctive is allowed. E. g.

Mi) iv oiei tovto, do not do this (habitually); pi) ttoitjo-vs touto,
do not do this (single act). 'E£au8a, pi) ice id e v6a>, Iva e'ibopev ap<p<a.
II. I, 363. £.Tpe'ibr), pi) ■tyevbe' emo-rdpevos adepa elirelv. H. IV,
404. 'Apyeioi, pi) na> ti pediere Bovptbos dXicrjs. II. IV, 234. Elwt
uoi eipoptvto vrjpeprea, pr)8' iir 1 Ke v cry s . Od. XV, 263. Hot) vvt
aco 7ratSl erros cpdo, pr)& eirUc-vde. Od. XVI, 168. Mj/JteVt vvv 8i)d
avBi Xeycopeda, prjb en Sypov IpfiaW d> pe 6 a 'ipyov. 11.11,435
Ypels Se rf) yy rybe py fiapvv kotov ct k i) \y y a 6 e , prj 6v povtrdt

§ 87.] PROHIBITIONS. 181

fiT]tf aKtipniav t , v^rjre. Aesch. Eumen. 800. *Ov pr)r oavfiTt,
p.r)r dcprjr tiros kcikov. Soph. O. C. 731. M17 drjo-flt vopov fir)8(va,
ak\a tovs fikdnrovTas vp.ds Xv'crare. Dkm. 01. Ill, 31, 11. (Here
6eo-8e would not be allowed by § 86 ; although Avowe, in a mere
exhortation, is regular, by § 84.) Mr) Kara tovs vopovs 8iK.do-r)re'
fir) fioT) dr)o~r)Te t<b ireirovBon 8eivd~ p.r) fvopKflrc. Id. Mid. 582,
15. Mr) npirj, nal, db8a. Arist. Nub. 613. Keu p.r)8e\s viroXafarj
pe PoiXeadat \ade1v. IsOC. Phil. p. 101 A. § 93. Kai p.r)8(\s oliaOa
fi dyvoelv. Id. Paneg. p. 55 C. § 73.

Note 1. (a.) With the exception of the first person (§ 86), the
Present Subjunctive is not used in prohibitions.

An elliptical use of the Subjunctive (sometimes the Present) after
fit) or oncos fir), with a verb of fearing understood, must not be con-
founded with this. (See § 46, N. 4.)

(&.) The second person of the Aorist Imperative is very seldom
found in prohibitions ; the third person is less rare. E. g.

Mn8' r) fila o~e pn8ap.u>s v 1 kt] adr a> . SOPH. Aj. 1334. Mr)8e croi
ft(\r)o-a.Ta>. Aesch. Prom. 332. So Prom. 1004. Kal /mjcVis
iifiaiv tt poo- Sour) crdTu) dXXcos. PlAT. Apol. 1 7 C.

Mr) y^evaov, <3 Zev, rrjs eiriovans eXnidos- A.RIST. Thes. 870.

Note 2. The first person singular even of the Aorist Subjunc-
tive in prohibitions is rare, and is found only in the poets. E. g.

M17 ere, yepov, Koi\r]0~iv e'ya> irapa vrjva\ (Ct^eio). II. I, 26. 'AAAa
f.i t< ye rrjo-de yfjs Trap6p.evo~ov ins rdxicrTa, p.r)8' avrov ddvat. SoPEL
Tr. 801. *Q ^Ivoi, fir) 8r)r ddiKr]8a. Id. O. C. 174. (This may
be explained also by § 46, N. 4.)

SECTION VIII.

Subjunctive (like Future Indicative) in Independent
Sentences. — Interrogative Subjunctive. — Ov yJ]
with Subjunctive and Future Indicative.

§ §7. In the Homeric language the Subjunctive is
sometimes used in independent sentences, with the
force of a weak Future Indicative. E. g.

Ou yap 7T<o tolovs t'cW dvepas, ov8e i8cop.ai, for I never yet saw,
nor shall I (or can I) ever see such men. U. I, 262. 'Yp.1v ev irdm-fo—
rt TrepaikvTa 8a>p' 6vop.r]vu> , I will enumerate the gifts, &c. II. IX^

182 INDEPENDENT SUBJUNCTIVE. [§ 87

121. Avaopai es 'Ai'Sao, Ka\ ev veKveo~o~i (paeivca, 1 will descend to
Hades, and shine among the dead (said by the Sun). Od. XII, 383.
(Here the Future dvaopai and the Subjunctive (paeiva hardly differ
in their force.) Kai nore tis etnyo-iv, and some one will perhaps
nay. II. VI, 459. (In vs. 462, referring to the same thing, we have
coy irore ris epeei.) Ovk eat) ovtos avr/p, ovo eaaerai, ovoe yevn-
roi, os Ktv TrjXepA^a> crco vUl %eipas enoiaet. Od. XVI, 437. Mi»y-
aopai oi/8e Xddapai 'AnoXXowos eKaroio, I will remember and will
not forget the far-shooting Apollo- Hymn, in Apoll. 1.

Remark. The Aorist is the tense usually found in this construc-
tion. The first person singular is the most common, and instances
of the second person are very rare.

Note. This Homeric Subjunctive, like the Future Indica-
tive, is sometimes joined with Sv or « to form an apodosis.
This enabled the earlier language to express an apodosis with
a sense between that of the Optative with av and that of the
simple Future Indicative, which the Attic was unable to do.
(See § 38, 2.) E. g.

Et 06 Ke ftf] 8a>r)aiv, eym 8e Kev avTos eXoop-ai, but if he does noX
give her up, I will take her myself. II. I, 324. (Here eX<op.ai Kev has
a shade of meaning between eXoiprjv Kev, I would take, and alprjo-o-
fiai, I will take, which neither the Attic Greek nor the English can
express.) Compare rjv % vylv ad(pa e'liro), ore irporeposye nvdoiprjv,
Od. II, 43, with ijv \ fjfjuv (rd(f>a etirot, ore nporepos ye nvOoio, II,
31, — both referring to the same thing. See also II. HI, 54; and
VI, 448, the last example under § 59, N. 1.

§ 88. The first person of the Subjunctive is used in
questions of doubt, where the speaker asks himself or
another what he is to do. The negative particle is pi?.
In Attic Greek this Subjunctive is often introduced by
(3ov\€i or fiovXeade (poetic #eA,et? or deXere). E. g.

Eittco tovto ; shall I say this? or fiovXei elnco tovto; do you wish
that I should say this ? Mij tovto irouopev, shall we not do this ? Ti
ttnco ; or ri fSovXeade ewr<»; what shall I say? or what do you want
me to say? For the Future in such questions, see § 25, 1, N. 4.

Urj yap eyw, (f>[Xe TeKvou, ico; Tev 8u>paff iKcopai dvbpcov oi KpavarjV
ldaKjjv KaWa Koipaveovaiv ; H Idiis ar/s prjrpos ico Kai aolo 86poio ;
whither shall I go? to whose house shall I come? &c. Od. XV, 509. *H
(tiros Kev 6 a; (pdadai 8e pe dvpos dvooyei- Od. XXI, 194. Q Zev
riXe^w; 7T0i (ppevav eXOco, irciTep; SOPH. O. C. 310. "Qpoi eycn,
nd j3a> ; irdo~Ta>; nd k e X o~ a> ; FuR. Hec. 1056. Ilot rpdnwpai
irol TtopevBo); lb. 1099. Ei7rco ti tooc eladoraiv, a decnroTa ;
ARIST. Ran. 1. TiVa -yap pdpTvpa /xe/fco napda \a> pat , Dem

n*~*~ fro ^ *y*^f*^ -*<- *z 6 a '/A-/5^ f*

§ 88.] INTERROGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 188

F. L. 416 7. MnS", edv^rijuvaipai, . . . epapai onocrov n^Xd; may
J not ask, &C.V hTrj8*~'dTT0K~p~tV(i) pai ovv. uv tis pe epwra vios, tav
fldai ; and mw[^jwfiansjqerJ &c. Aen. Mem. T.~2^HT. mTo^To) aa>-
uida ovv KrjovKa, fj avTos dvelira); Plat. Rep. IX, 580 B. Mf-
dvovra av8pa ndw a(p68pa 8(^€<r6e o~vpn6Tr]v, fj an i cope v ; will you
receive him, or shall we go away? Id. Symp. 212 E. *Aga jxfi aioj^u v - I
6 co p e v rbv IIepcra>v fiacriXea pip-qo-ao-dai ; shall we then be ashamed I
to iTnitateVTe king uf the Persians ?~~X~en. Oecon. IV, 4.

Uov 8rj ft o v X e c Kadi (ope voi dvayvio pe v; where wilt thou that we^-t^ „
sit down and read ? Plat. Phaedr. 228 E. (So 263 E.) BovXei
ovv (7TiokKOTra> pe v onov fj8r] to bvvarov eo~n ; Xen. Mem. Ill, 5. 1.
BouXei Xa/3co p.ai 8ijra Kal diyoo t'i aov ; SOPH. Phil. 761. Bov-
Xecrc9, eneio-neaaipev ; EoR. Hec. 1042. 9Aeif pe'ivapev avTov
k a v a k o v a at p e v yocov ; Soph. El. 81. Ti croi deX f is 8ijr e l<ad<o ;
Id. O. T. 651. GeXfTf 6npao-<opeda Tlevdeas 'Ayavt)v prjrip e<
fiaKXfvparfov, x°-Plu T' d-vaKTt deopev; Eur. Bacch. 719. So with
KeXevere: 'AXXa 7rcos ; fiVco KeXevere koa ovk opyielaOe ; do you
command me to speak, &c. ? Dem. Phil. Ill, 123, 1.

In Plat. Rep. II, 372 E, we find @ov\ea8e and a Subjunctive with
« in protasis: el 8' av (BovXeade <a\ (pXeypatvovaav ttoXiv dcwpf]-
o-(op.fv, ov8ev dnoKtoXvei, i. e. if you will have us examine, &c.
(§ 49, 1.)

Remark. In this construction there is an implied appeal to some
person (sometimes to the speaker himself), so that fiovXti or some
similar word can always be understood, even if it is not expressed.
Homeric examples in which this is not the case fall naturally under
§87.

In the later Greek the classic form 6eXere ei7rco ; was developed
into 6eXfr( ha (<>r onus) fiVco ; — from which comes the modern
Greek OiXere va eiVrco ; or va etna) ; will you have me speak?

Note 1. The third person of the Subjunctive is sometimes
used in questions, but less frequently than the first. This
happens chiefly when a speaker refers to himself by r\s. Ex-
amples of the second person are very rare. E. g.

Horepov ere tis, Ala)(tvr], ttjs iroXeais i\6pbv rj epov eivai <fijj ; l. e.
shall we call you the city's enemy, or mine ? Dem. Cor. 268, 28. Eito
raid ovtoi rr e ia 6 cocr iv vnep avrcov o~e noielv, Kai rd rr/s af/s ttovtj-
pias epya e(p' iavrovs dva8 e £ ukt at ; i. e. are these men to believe,
&c. ; and are they to assume, &c. Id. Androt. 613, 3. Tt tis tlvai
tovto (pfj ; Id. F. L. 369, 12. Qi>yaTcp,irol tis (j>povri8os eX 6n ; Soph.
O. C. 170. LToi tis ovv <bvyy; Id \j. 403. JJodtv ovv tis TavTijs
dpgnrai paws; Plat. Phil. 15 D. LTcoj tis ne iOnrai ; II. I,
150. (LTcoy ovv ?t' tinvs otl o~vveoTaXpai kokois ; Eur. Here. F.
1417.) See Kriiger, Vol. I, § 54, 2 ; Notes 4 and 5.

Note 2. The Subjunctive is often used in tho question

184 DOUBLE NEGATIVE Oi /ilf. [_§ 88.

rt ira6a> ; what will become of me ? or what harm will it do me .

literally, what shall I undergo ? E. g.

*Q pa eye!), ti it a. dec; rt vv poi pijKio-Ta yevrjTat ; Od. V, 465. So
II. XI, 404. Tt it a 8 a> ; rt 8e Spco ; rt Se p.Tjo-a>pai ; Aesch. Sept.
1057. Ti n-a(9co T\ijp<oi> ; Id. Pers. 912; Arist. Plut. 603. Tt
jr dda>; ti be prjTopai ; o'tpoi. Soph. Trach. 973. To peWov, ei XPtfi
irria-ofMaf ti yap irada* ; I shall suffer what is to come, if it must
be ; for what harm can it do met Eur. Phoen. 895. (The differ-
ence between this and the ordinary meaning of Trdcr^co is here seen.)
'ilfio\6yr]Ka ■ ti yap nadat; Plat. Euthyd. 302 D. So in the
plural, Hdt. IV, 118 ; Tt yap n dd a> p.ev p.rj f$ovkop.eva>v vp-ecov Tip.a>-
peeiv ;

§ 89. The double negative ov /jurj is sometimes used
with the Subjunctive and the Future Indicative in inde-
pendent sentences, being equivalent to a strong single
negative. The compounds of both ov and fiij can be
used here as well as the simple forms.

1. The Subjunctive (sometimes the Future Indica-
tive") with ov lit) may have the force of an emphatic
Future with ov. Thus ov fir/ tovto <yevr}rai (sometimes
ov fir) tovto <yevr]creTaCy means this surely will not hap-
pen, being a little more emphatic than ov tovto <yevrj-
o-eTai. E. g.

(Aor. Subj.) Ov pr) Tri6r)Tai,he will not obey. Soph. Phil. 103.
Ovre yap yiyverai ovre yeyoveu ovbe ovv fir) yevrjrat dWdiov rjdos,
for there is not, nor has there been, nor will there ever be, &c. Plat.
Rep. VI, 492 E. (Here ovbe prj yevnrai is merely more emphatic
than the ordinary ov yevrjaerai.) Kal raiub' d<ovo-as ov ti p.r] X rj <p 8 a
bo\a. AeSCH. Sept. 38. 'AXX* ov nor et; epov ye p.rj irdBrjS robe.
Soph. El. 1029. Ovtol <r 'Axaicov, olba, p\r) tis vfiplay- Id. Aj.
560. 'AXX' ov ti pr) <fivyr)Te Xcu\|/r?pa> nodi. EuR. El. 1039. Tcok
tjv KpaTr)0-G>p.ev, ov pt] tis rjptv aXXos arpaTos duTio~Ti) <ore dv8pa)ira>v.
Hdt. Vn, 53. So I, 199. Oil pi] ere Kpv^co rrpos ovriva fiovXopai
depiKeadau Xen. Cyr. VII, 3, 13. Ot ye 'Appivioi ov prj be £a>vrai
Toiis iroXepiovs. lb. Ill, 2, 8. Av pevroi Ka86>pe8a o'ikoi, oiibenoT
oibev r)plv ov fir) yevrjTai tu>v beovrcov. 1)em. Phil. I, 53, 4. So
Phil. IH, 130, 11.

(Pres. Subj.) Hi» yap ana^ biio r] rpiav rjpepwv obbv anoo-x^pev,
ovKeTi p.fj bvvrjTai fiao-ikevs rjpds KaraXafieiv. Xen. An. II, 2, 12.
So ov pr/ bvvwvrai, Id. Hier. XI, 15. Upos tovto naicovpyei xai
crvKoCpdvTei, el ti biivaaai • oibev o-ov nap'iepai' dXX' oil pi] oios T '•} ty
but you will not be able. Plat. Rep. I, 341 B.

§89,2.] DOUBLE NEGATIVE Oil prj . 183

(Fut. Ind.) Ov o-ot pfj pc-deyfropai nore. Soph. El. 1052.
Toiis yap wovrjpovs ov pfj irore rroifjo-ere fteXriovs- Aesciiin. Cor.
§ 177. Ov rot prjnoTf cr e'< tcov e&pdvcov, co yepov. HkovtA tis ci£et.
Soph. O. C. 176. So ovk ovv pfj 6ftonropf]creis, O. C. 848 ; and Hdt.
Ill, 62. Ma tov ' hiroXXco ov pfj cr iyco nepiotyopaneXBovT (i. e.
ire piotyopai dneXdovra). Arist. Ran. 508. Einev on fj 2iraprrj
ovdev pfj KaKiov ouifirat avrov diroBavovTos. Xen. Hell. I, 6, 32.
(See § 70, 2; and below, Note 1.)

The Aorist Subjunctive is the most common form in this con-
struction.

Note 1. Ov prj with the Future Optative, representing a Future
Indicative of the direct discourse, occurs in an indirect quotation
after co? : 'Yd t aXXa irdvT edeo-mcreu, Ka\ Tarn Tpolas ircpyap! cos o v
pf] nore ire pcroiev , el pfj rovde ayoivro. Soph. Phil. 611. (The
direct discourse was ov pfj nore ire per ere, eav pfj rovhe ayrjade.) In
the last example under § 89, 1, the Future Indicative is retained in
the same construction. The Future Infinitive can be used in the
same way; as, Ewre Teipecrtas ov pf] nore, croii Tf]i>8e yrjv oikovvtos,
«v npd^eiv tt6\i.v. Eur. Phoen. 1590.

Ov pf] with the Subjunctive occurs in a causal sentence after cos, in
Arist. Av. 461: Aeye Qappfjcras' cos ras cmovb'as ov pfj irporepov
rrapaficopev .

Note 2. This construction is often explained by supposing an
ellipsis of deivov ecrriv or cp6(3os ecrriv between the ov and the pfj :
this is based on such passages as Xen. Mem. II, 1, 25, ov (pofios pfj
ere dydyco, there is no fear lest I may lead you, which with the cpojSos
omitted would be ov pf) ere dydyco. This theory, however, leaves the
following construction (§ 89, 2) entirely unexplained ; and the sup-
posed ellipsis fails to account for the meaning in many cases, as in
the first example under § 89, 1.

2. The second person of the Future Indicative (some-
times the Subjunctive) with ov ^ may express a strong
prohibition. Thus ov [at) \a\^aei<i means you shall not
prate (or do not prate), being more emphatic than m
\a\et. E. g.

Holos Zevs; ov pf) Xr/pfjcreis (Xr/pfjo-ris)- o»JS' ecrri Zevs, i. e. Stop
your nonsense! Arist. Nub- 367. 'g'ttcu, ri 6poeis ; ov pf) nap'
o^kc* rdSe yrjpvcrei, do not (I beg you) speak out in this way before
the people. Eur. Hippol. 213. *Q dvyarep, ov pf) pvdov hri iroXXovs
epels. Eur. Supp. 1066. Ov pfj yvvaiKcov deiXbv elcroicre is
Xoyov, do not adopt the cowardly language of women. Eur. Andr.
757. Ov pf] e' £ eye pels tov vttvco kcito^ov k&kk ivfj cr e is Kauacrrf)'
aets (poirdSa 8eivf]v vocrov, oi tIkvov, do not wake him. Soph. Trach.
978. Tt noiels; ov pfj Kara/3 jj ere i , don't come down. Arist. Vesp
897.

186 DOUBLE NEGATIVE Oi) pif. [§89,2

For the use of the future, see § 25, 1. N. 5. For the Subjunctive
in this construction, see below, Rem. 2.

Note 1. A prohibition thus begun by ov ur) may be con-
tinued by pn8i with another Future (or Subjunctive). An
affirmative command may be added by another Future or an
Imperative, after a\\d or <V. E. g.

Ov pi) KaXels p, cavdpoxp', tKfrevaj, pn8e icare pels Tovvopa, do
not call to me, I implore you, nor speak my name. Arist. Ran. 298.
Ov pr) 7r poo~oio~e is Xe'Pa f17)0' a\jsei TreTrXoav, do not bring your
hand near me nor touch my garments. Eur. Hippol. 606. Oil ^

7r po o~o i (re is xe'Pa' ^a <xe v <Tf ls ^ '(*)I/> M7/^' * £° H-0 P%€ l fuipiaf
ttjv o-fjv tuoi, do not bring your hand near me; but go and rage, and
do not wipe off your folly on me. Id. Bacch. 343.

Ov pr) XaXr] o-e is (XaXr'jarjs), d\X' daoXov6r)o~eis epoi, do not
prate, but follow me. Arist. Nub. 505. Oi ur) 8iarpiylreis , dXXd
yevo-ei rr)s dvpas, do not delay, but knock at the door. Id. Ran.
462. Ou pr) (pXvapr)ae is ex<ov, <o BavOia, dXX' dpdp.evos otaeis
7rdXiv tci o~Tpa>uara. lb. 524. Oi) pr) 8vap.fi/fis e o~ e i (p'CXois, navaet
Se 6vuov /cat 7rdAtv VTpeijreiS <dpa, . . . 8e£ei 8e 8upa (cat irapai
rrjo-et narpos, be not inimical to friends, but cease your rage, &c.
Eur. Med. 1151. Ov pr) cr/cco^jys prj8i Troirjarjs dnep oi rpvyoSai-
poves ovtoi, dXX' evrpTjue i , do not scoff, nor do what these wretches
do; but keep silence ! Arist. Nub. 296. (Here the Imperative is
used precisely like the Future with dXXd or 8e in the preceding ex-
amples .)

The Future in the clauses with dXXd or be will be explained by
§ 25, 1, N. 5 (a) ; in the clauses with ur)8c it may be explained by
§ 25, 1, N. 5 (b), or we may consider the construction a continua-
tion of that with ov pi], the pr) being repeated without the ov.

Note 2. In a few cases ov with the Future is used interroga-
tively expressing an exhortation, followed by another Future with
firj8e or na\ pr) expressing a prohibition. E. g.

Ov criy dvi£ei, pn8e SeiXlav ape I (s), keep silence (lit. will you not
keep silence?) and do not become a coward. Soph. Aj. 75. (Here
perhaps we should punctuate ov &iy dve£ei; pij8e 8(iXiav dpti.
See Rem. 1. But the first clause, although strictly interrogative, is
really an exhortation, and was so considered in the construction of
the following clause, where the Future is to be explained on the
principle of § 25, 1, N. 5 (6). Compare the examples under Note
1.) Oi) 6ao~aov oiirfif, prj8' an io-rr)o- e is epoi, l. e. extend your
hand, and do not distrust me. Id. Trach. 1183. Ovk ei ov r o'Uovs,
o~v re Kptow Kara arcyas, na\ pr) to pr]8ev aXyos (Is ue'y oitreTC. Id.
O. T. 637.

Remark 1. The examples under § 89, 2 and the notes are usu-
ally printed as interrogative, in accordance with the doctrine of
Elmsley, stated in his note to Eurip. Med. 1120 (1151) and in the

§89,2.] I OUBLE NEGATIVE Ov (ii). 187

Quarterly Review for June, 1812. He explains ov fir) XnXjJo-ftr ;
as meaning icill you not stop prating ? lit. will you not not prate f and
when a second clause in the Future with fj.rj.8i or a\\a follows, he
considers the interrogative force of ov to extend also to this. But
this explanation requires an entirely different theory to account for
the construction of § 89, 1 ; whereas the rules given above consider
the Subjunctive there a relic of the common Homeric Subjunctive
(§ 87), and explain the Future in § 89, 2 by the principle stated in
§ 25, 1,N. 5, — oil ut) having the same force of a strong single negative
in both constructions. As to the examples in N. 1, the last one (where
the Imperative instead of the Future follows a\\a) seems to be de-
cisive against the interrogative force commonly ascribed to the
Future in the others. The examples in N. 2 are the strongest sup-
port of Elmsley's theory, where the first clause is clearly interroga-
tive, at least originally ; but the force of the question as an exhorta-
tion seems to have guided the construction of the sentence, which
is finished after the analogy of the examples in N. 1. The explana-
tion given above (N. 2) is supported by Aesch. Sept. 250, ov alya;
firjo'iv Twvb' eptis Kara tttoKiv, will you not keep silence? {oi aly dvi-
£ei ;) say nothing of this kind through the city.

We may explain the examples in N. 2 as interrogative, by con-
sidering the first clause a question with ov (implying; an affirma-
tive answer) equivalent to an exhortation, and the second a
question with fn) (implying a negative answer) equivalent to
a prohibition. Ov o-ly avctjei. ur)8e 8ei\lav dpei ; wdl thus mean,
will you not keep silence ? and you will not become a coward^ todl
you f

Remark 2. In modern editions of the classics the Subjunctive is
not found in the construction of § 89, 2. But in many of the exam-
ples quoted there and in the notes the first Aorist Subjunctive in
-o-tjs has been emended to the Future, against the authority of the
Mss., in conformity to Dawes's rule. (See § 45, N. 8, with foot-
note.) Thus, in the three examples from the Clouds, the Mss. have
the Subjunctive; and in the last (vs. 296) ov ut) o-<a>>\rns could
not be changed to ov ur) aKm^eis, as the Future of o-Koanrat is
o-Kooyfrofiai. Elmsley's emendation a k co \1/ e t is therefore adopted by
most editors. But this seems too violent a change to allow in the
text, merely to sustain an arbitrary rule, which at best has nothing
but accident to rest on. If both constructions (§ 89, 1 and 2) are
explained on the same principle, there is no longer any reason for
objecting to the Subjunctive with ov ut) in prohibitions; and it
seems most probable that both the Future and the Subjunctive were
allowed in both constructions, but that the Subjunctive was more
common in that of § 89, 1, and the Future in that of § 89, 2.

188 THE INFINITIVE. ["§ 90.

CHAPTER V.

THE INFINITIVE.

§ 90. The Infinitive mood expresses the simple idea
of the verb, without limitation of number or person.
It has the force of a neuter verbal noun, and as such it
may take the neuter of the article in all its cases.

It has at the same time the attributes of a verb, so
that (even when it takes the article) it may have a
subject, object, and other adjuncts ; and, further, it is
qualified not by adjectives, but by adverbs.

§91. The Infinitive may as nominative be the sub-
ject of a finite verb, or as accusative be the subject of
another Infinitive. The Infinitive is especially common
as the subject of an impersonal verb, or of ean. It may
also be a predicate nominative, or it may stand in appo-
sition with a substantive.

Such Infinitives stand regularly without the article ;
but if they are to be especially prominent as containing
the leading idea of the sentence, the article may be
used. E. g.

2 we/37/ avra iXdelv, it happened to him to go. Ovk evearn tovto
■jroifjaai. 'AftvvaTov e'crri tovto noirjo-at. 'E^t/i* fieveiv. Aft
avTov fieveiv. Ov p,ev yap n nanbv /3 acr iXevt p.e v , for it is no had
thing to he a king. Od. I, 392. Els ola>v6s aptcrroy, d p-vveadai
irepi naTpns. H. XII, 243. 'Aet yap r](ia toIs yepovatv e v p.adtiy,
AKSCH. Ag. 584. IIoXv yap paov t)(ovTas (pvXaTTe iv r) KTna-a-
a6ai ndvTa irecpvKev. Dem. 01. II, 25, 24. (Compare 01. I, 16, 3:
Aoieel to (pvXd^ai Tayadd tov KTrjaaadai xaXeiroiTepov eivtu.)
cHov noXXovs ixdpovs i'xeiv; Dem. F. L. 409, 25. Aotel oIko-
v6p,ov ayadov eivat €v oIk(Iv tov eavrov oikov. Xen. Oecon. I,
2. &rjcr\ 8elu tovto TToirjo~ai, he says that it is necessary to Jo this.
(Hen* 7roif;«rai as accus. is the subject of 8e~iv: for 8elv, see § 92, 2.)
To yvi>vat iiricrrrjfxnv nov Xafielv earriv, to learn is to acquire knowl-
edge. Plat. Theaet. 209 E. To 8Unv 8i86vai noTtpov 7rdo~xfiw

$ 92, 1.] INFINITIVE AS OBJECT. 189

ri ioriv r) iroitlv; Plat. Gorg. 476 D. (In the last two exampVg
the subject Infinitive has the article to emphasize it, while the pre-
dicate Infinitives stand alone.) Ovtoi r)8v eWi to ?xfiv XPWaTa
ovtczs u>t aviapbv to aivo /3aXXe iv . Xen. Cyr. VIII, 3, 42. (Com-
pare the two examples above from Demosthenes.) Tovto «'<m to
dftiKelv, to nXtov tSjv aXXav fjjreif f\flv' Plat. Gor<r. 483 C.
'AXX' oifiai, vvv fiev inicrKOTfi tovtois to KaTopdovv. Dem. 01. II,
23, 27. To yap Oavarov 8 e file fat ov8ev ciXXo (ctt\v rj 8ok€iv o-o(b6v
tivai fir) ovra- doKtlv yap eldevai iariv a ovk. ol8eu. Plat. Anol.
29 A.

§ 92. The Infinitive without the article may be the
object of a verb. It stands generally as an object accu-
sative, sometimes as an object genitive, and sometimes
as an accusative of kindred signification. The classes
of verbs after which the Infinitive is thus used must be
learned by practice ; but the Infinitive without a sub-
ject follows in general the same classes of verbs in
Greek as in English. The following, however, may be
specially mentioned : —

1. In general, any verb whose action directly implies
another action or state as its object, if such action or
state is to be expressed by a verb and not by a noun,
takes the Infinitive. Such are verbs signifying to teach,
to learn, to accustom, to desire, to ask, to advise, to entreat,
to exhort, to command, to persuade, to urge, to propose, to
compel, to need, to cause, to intend, to begin, to attempt, to
permit, to decide, to dare, to prefer, to choose, to pretend ;
those expressing fear, unwillingness, eagerness, cau-
tion, neglect, danger, postponement, forbidding, hindrance,
escape, &c. ; and all implying ability, fitness, desert,
qualification, sufficiency, or their opposites. E. g.

Aibacricovcnv ai/Tov /3aXXeiv, they teach him to shoot. "Epadov tovto
noirjaai, they learned to do tkis. BouXerat eXdeiv. Hapaivovpev o-oi
neideo-dai. <J>o/3ov^iat ptveiv. hlpovvrai TroXepeiu. 'H noXis kiv8v-
vevei 8ia(p0aprjvai Awarai dneXdelu. 'EKeXev&eu axiTov irepiptivai
fi(. Aeop-ai vpaiu o~vyyva>p,rjv pm (Xilv- Eme arpar^yovs iXtaoat, he
proposed to choose generals. ' htrayopevovo-iv avrois pr) tovto T.oirjtrai.
(See below, § 95, 2 ) Tt KcoXvcrei avTov fia8i£eiv ortoi ftovXtTai, what
will prevent him from marching, &fc. f 'A|ia> Xapjiavtiv. 'A^ioCirai

190 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 92, 1.

6avfiv. Ov m<pvKt 8ov\eveiv, he is not born to be a slave. 'AvajidX'
X«rat tovto noieiv, he postpones doing thin.

This use of the Infinitive is too common to need illustration by
more particular examples.

Remark 1. The Infinitive in this construction is generally equiv
alent to the English Infinitive after the same class of verbs ; and it
refers to indefinite or to future time. (See § 15, 1.) The Present
and Aorist are the tenses usually found, with the distinction stated
in the Remark before §12: for the Perfect, see § 1 8, 3 (b) ; and lor
the occasional use of the Future Infinitive (or even the Infinitive
with av) after some of these verbs, see § 27, N. 2.

Remark 2. Verbs of fearing and caution are included in the list
given above, although they are generally followed by fir), lest, and
the Subjunctive or Optative. (See § 46.) The Infinitive, however,
sometimes occurs ; and, when it is used, it belongs regularly under
the rule, § 92, 1. (See § 46, N. 8, a and b.)

Verbs expressing danger take the Infinitive more frequently than
fj.r) with the Subjunctive or Optative. (See § 46, N. 8, c.)

Note 1. Some verbs which do not regularly take an In-
finitive may be used in unusual significations, so as to allow an
Infinitive by § 92, 1. E. g.

Svi>f^r](rav toIs HXaraievai napabovvai o-(pdt avrovs Kai ra onXa,
they made an agreement with the Plataeans to surrender, &c. Thuc.
II, 4. TtVi 8' av tis fiaWov maTcvo-eie TrapaKaradtadat xprjuara ;
to whom would any one sooner dare to commit money f Xkx. Mem.
IV, 4, 17. 'OovpovTat oi<6v8e veeo-0ai, they mourn to go home. II.
II, 290. 'Eirev(pr)p.T)aav 'Amatol at beladai leprja. II. I, 22.

Note 2. When a noun and a verb (especially tori) to-
gether form an expression equivalent to any of^the verbs of
§ 92, 1, they may take the Infinitive without the article.
Some other expressions with a similar force take the same
construction. E. g.

AvdyKr] e'errl ndvras dneXdelv. Klvbvvos r/v avra nadeiv ri.
Okvos io~Ti pot tovto Trotfj aai . $oj3os eariv avrw e\de iv. "Ap.a£a
ev aiiTais rjv, KcoXv/xa ovaa (t6.s nvXas) tt poa 8 civai, a wagon, which
prevented them from shutting the gates. Thuc. IV, 67. So eVeyeVro
8t dXXois re aXXodi KcoXvpaTa fu) av^TjBijvai , obstacles to their in-
crease. Id. I, 16. (See § 95, 2, N. 1.) Tois orpaTKurais 6ppr) ivt-
neae e'xrei^iVai to ^co/HOf. Id. IV, 4. Ou pdvris elfU Ta<pavrj
yvavai, I am not enough of a prophet to decide, &c. Eur. Hippcl.
346. (Here the idea of ability is implied in pdvrts elpi) To dcr<pa\(s
Kai ptveiv <a\ dntXdtlv ai vrjes irapt^ovaiv. Thuc VI, 18. (See
§ 93, 1.) "E)(ovTa TiOaaevtadai (pvaiv, capable by nature of

§ 92, 1.] INFINITIVE AS OBJECT. 191

being tamed ( = nt<f>vK6Tu TiOao-e £f adai). Plat. Politic. 264 A. Tii
Mxavr) firj au^\ iravra KUTavaXcodrjvat els to TeBvdvat ; (i. e. ri
KaXvvei fxrf ov^i iravra KaravaXcodrjvai ;) Plat. Phaed. 72 D. A«-
8oi<a pr) iroXXa Ka\ ^uAf7ra els dvdyKrjv eXdcopev woielv, lest we may
come to the necessity of doing. Dem. 01. I, 13, 25. "Qpa dirievai,
k is time to go away (like xpn dmevat, we must go away). Plat.
Apol. 42 A. 'EXnlSas e\ei tovto noirjo-ai (=tXni£fi tovto notrj-
<rai), he hopes to do this. But eXnis tov eXelv, Thuc. II, 56.
Oi 8e fames a'lnoi 6 avelv , and the living are those who caused them
to die. Soph. Ant. 1173. We might also have amoi roi tovtovs
Baveiv or atnoi to tovtovs daveiv. (See § 23, 1, N. 3.) So in phrases
like iroXXov (or uiKpov) fieco iroieiv rt, / want much (or little) of doinq
anything ; napa fiixpov r/Xdov iroieiv ti, they came within a little of do-
ing anything; where the idea of ability, inability, or sufficiency
appears: soin Tliuc. VII, 70, $paXy yap dneXmov Bianamai ytve-
a6ai. So eu7ro8<ov toutu> eo-Tiv eXBelv (—kodXvci tovtov eXdrfv), it
prevents him from going; where tov eXdeiv may be used. (See § 94,
and § 95, 1 and 2.)

The Infinitive depending on a noun is generally an adnominal
genitive with the article tov. See § 94 and § 95, 1.

Note 3. Although the Infinitive depending on the verbs in-
cluded in § 92, 1 regularly stands without the article, yet to is some-
times _ prefixed to give the Infinitive still more the character of a
noun in the accusative. The Infinitive is sometimes placed for em-
phasis apart from the main construction, like a synecdochical accu-
sative. E. g.

Kai n&s 8r] to dpxatovs etvai dvdpa>ira>v iraiftevfis ; Xen. Oecon.
XIII, 4. (So nai8evu> rivd ti.) To 8' av £vvoiKtiv tjj8' ouov tis
av yvm) Svvairo ; i. e. as to living with her, what woman could do it f
Soph. Tr. 545. To bpdv ovk ^diXno-av. Id. O. C. 442.

Ovbeis fi av ireicreiev t 6 urj ovk eXdeiv, no one coidd persuade me
not to go. Arist. Ran. 68. (For ul) ov, see § 95, 2, N. 1, b.) So
Xen. Hell. V, 2, 36. So 6eX£ei to prj KTeivai avvewov (like
neio-et to p.fj KTeivai), Aesch. Prom. 865. Compare Soph. Phil.
1253, ov8e toi o-fj xeiPl neldopai to 8pav, i. e. I do not trust your
hand for action (like ov ireldoaal trot tovto, I do not trust you in
this.)

Note 4. Other active verbs than those included in § 92, 1 may
take the Infinitive like an ordinary noun, as an object accusative.
Here, however, the Infinitive takes the article to. E. g.

To TeXcvrij o~at. iravroiv fj neTTp<t)uevr) KareKpivev, fate awarded
death to all. Isoc. Demon, p. 1 1 C. § 43.

Note 5. A few of the verbs included in § 92, 1, which govern
the genitive of a noun, allow also the genitive of the Infinitive with
rov, as well as the simple Infinitive. (See § 95, 1.) This appliei
chiefly to dp*Xia>, imaeXeouat, and to the verbs of hindrance, &c in-
cluded in § 95, 2. E. g.

192 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 92, 1.

'Au.(\f)<ras tov 6pyl{eo-dai. Xen. Mem. IT, 3, 9. (But a/xfXq<raj
\eyav, Plat. Phaed. 98 D.) Most verbs of desiring and neglecting
take only the simple Infinitive. 'EinpeXeopai, which usually takes
oWwith the Future Indicative (§ 45), allows also the simple In-
finitive (Thuc. VI, 54), and the Infinitive with tov (Xen. Mem.
HI, 3, 11). See § 45, N. 6, a.

Remark. For the use of the Infinitive without to after verbs as
an accusative by synecdoche (usually found only after adjectives),
see § 93, 2, Note 3.

2. Another case in wliich the Infinitive appears as
the object of a verb occurs in indirect discourse, after
verbs implying thought or the expression of thought (verba
sentiendi et declarandi) or equivalent expressions. Here
each tense of the Infinitive, instead of referring indefi-
nitely to the future (as in the former construction, § 92,
1), represents the corresponding tense of the Indicative
or Optative

Remark. For this construction see § 73, 1 ; where also exam-
ples of the Infinitive with civ in indirect discourse are given. For
the distinction between the Infinitive in this construction and the
ordinary Infinitive (92, 1), see § 73, 1, Remark. For the Infini-
tive, not in indirect discourse, alter some verbs which usually be-
long to this class, see § 15, 2, Notes 2 and 3 ; see also § 23, 2, Notes
2 and 3.

Note 1. Of the three common verbs signifying to say, (prjpiia
regularly followed only by the Infinitive in indirect discourse, elnov
only by on or as and the Indicative or Optative, while Xe-yw ^allows
either construction. A singular exception in regard to tlnov is
found in Eur. Phoen. 1590, quoted § 89, 1, N. 1. (See § 15, 2,
N. 3.)

Note 2. After many verbs of this class in the passive both a
personal and an impersonal construction are allowed : thus, we can
say Xeyerai 6 Kvpos yevtcrdai, Cyrus is said to have been, or X«yrra«
tov Kvpov yeveadai, it is said that Cyrus was. Ao/ce'co in the meaning,
/ seem (videor) usually has the personal construction, as in English ;
as ovtos Soxei elvai, he seems to be. When an Infinitive with av fol-
lows (§ 73, 1), it must be translated by an impersonal construction,
to suit the English idiom : thus, bonel tis av i'xei.v must ]>e translate(i
it seems that some one would have, although ns is the subject of So/cel ;
r# we cannot use would with our Infinitive, to translate t\uv 3»*
(See § 42, 2, Note.)

§ 93, 1.] INFINITIVE AFTER RELATIVES, ETC 193

Note 3. (a.) When an indirect quotation has been intro-
duced by an Infinitive, a dependent relative or temporal clause
in the quotation sometimes takes the Infinitive by assimilation,
where we should expect an Indicative or Optative. The tem-
poral particles &>?, ore, iirei, «V«t8»;, as well as the relative pro-
nouns, are used in this construction. Herodotus also uses «,
if, and even 8ion, because, in the same way. E. g.

Mera 8e,a>s ov rrave a dai, aKea 8i(rjcrdai (\eyovo~i),and afterivards,
when it did not cease, they say that they sought for remedies. Hdt. I,
94. (Here we should expect cos ovk ewavero.) 'Qs 8' dKovo-ai
tovs napovras, Oopvfiov yeveadai ((paariv), they say that, when those
present heard it, there was a tumult. Dem. F. L. 402, 8. 'Ejrei8r) 8i
yeve crdai eni rrj olula rjj 'Ayddcovos, (e(prj) dvecoype'vrjv KaraXapftd-
veiv ttjv Ovpav. Plat. Symp. 174 D. See Rep. JC, 614 B. Aiyerai
AXKpaicovi, ore 8rj dXdcrtd at avrbv, rbv 'AnoXXco Tavrrjv rrjv ynv
XRlo-ai olKe'iv. THUC. II, 102. (See § 15, 1, N. 2.) Kai baa av per
eKeivcov /3ovA eve a 6 at , ov8evbs vcrrepov yvcoprj (pavr/vai {ecbacrav).
Id. I, 91. (Here efiovXevovro would be the common form.) 'Hyou-
pevt]s 8rj dXndeias ouk av nore (paipev avrfj xopbv kcikcov aKoXovOfjcrai,
d\\' vyus re Ka\ 8iKaiov rjdos, co Kai o~io(t>poo~vvT]v en e a 6 at. PLA.T.
Rep. VI, 490 C.

Ei yap 8rj 8e1v navrcos nepidelvai aXA<a rtco rrjv ^acriXnirjv, (e(prf)
8iKai6repov elvai Mrjdcov reo> irepifiaXelv tovto. Hdt. I, 129. (Here el
8e'oi or el 8el would be the ordinary expression.) So Hdt. Ill, 105
and 108; doubtful, II, 64 and 172. See Kruger's note on I, 129.
Tipdv 8e 'Sapiovs e(pn, Stdrt racprj vai oi rbv ndmrov dnpoaip \mb
Sa/iiW. Hdt. HI, 55.

(&.) In some cases, particularly when the provisions of a law are
quoted, a relative is used with the Infinitive, even when no Infini-
tive precedes. E. g.

"EdrjKev eft ols e^ elvai dnoKTivvvvai, he enacted on what condition!
it is allowed to kill. Dem. Lept. 505, 19. Kai 8ia ravra, av ris diro-
KTe'ivrj riva, ttjv ^ovXr/v 8iKa£eiv eypa^re, Kai ov^ airep, av aXco, eivai,
and he did not enact ichat should be done if he should be convicted.
Dem. Aristocr. 629, 2. (Here elvai is the reading of the Cod. 2,
amply defended by the preceding example, in which all editors
allow e^e'ivai.~) AeVa yap civ8pas npoeiXovro aura tjvpfiovXovs, avev
av pfj Kvpiov elvai dtrdyeiv arpariav eK rrjs noXecos- Thuc V, 63.

§ 93. The Infinitive without the article may limit
the meaning of certain adjectives and adverbs.

1. Such are particularly adjectives denoting ability,
fitness, desert, qualification, sufficiency, readiness, and
9 M

194 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 93, 1.

their oppo sites ; and, in general, those denoting the
same relations as the verbs which govern the Infinitive
(§ 92, 1). E. g.

Awaros iroielv, able to do. Aeivbs Xeyeiu, skilled in speaking.
"Agio's e'ort raiira Xa/3ele, he deserves to receive this. 'Aval-ios davud^e-
vdai, unworthy to be admired. *A£tor ripdadai, worthy to be honored.
Ot>x oids re rjv tovto Ideiv, he was not able to see this. Upodvuos
Aiyeiv, eager to speak. 'Eroipos nivb'vvov imopsveiv, ready la endure
danger.

QepiOTOKhea, luavioTUTOV elneiu Ka\ yvcovai KaiTTpa^ai. Lys.
Or. Fun. p. 194, § 42. Tov 8' eniTTjbeiov raiira iradeiv i'cpr], the
people said that he was a suitable person to suffer this. Dem. Phil. Ill,
126, 19. Ai yap evnpatjiat. beivai <jvy Kpvtyai ra roiaiira oveibn.
Id. 01. II, 23, 29. Kvpiav iTroi-ncrav etr ipeXeia dai rfjs evrafjias, they
gave it (the Areopagus) power to superintend good order. Isoc. Areop.
p. 147 D. § 39. Binv be ddvisaroi rjaav npoacpe pe i v. Hdt. Ill,
138. MakaKoi napTt pelv , too effeminate to endure. Plat. Rep.
VIII, 556 B. Taneivr) vpcov r) bidvoia ey Kapr e peiv a eyvcore, your
minds are loo dejected to persevere, &c. Thuc II, 61. (In the last
two examples paXaicoi and raneivr) govern the Infinitive by the idea
of inability implied in them.) Xpr)paTa nopl£e iv evTropcorarov ywr).
ARIST. Eccles. 236. Socpcorepoi brj avpcpopas ras ru>v neXas wdvres
diaipelv rj Tildas rds o'Uodev- Eur. Alcmen. Fr. 103. 'Emo-Tr)pa>v
Xeyeti' re teal aiydv. Plat. Phaedr. 276 A. TuXXa evpr)o~ets
inov pyelv ovras r)pas ov Kanovs- Arist. Pac. 430.

For examples of nouns followed by the Infinitive, see § 92, 1, N. 2.

Note 1. The use of the Infinitive after ofos in the sense of
appropriate, likely, capable, and bcros in that of sufficient, with or
without their antecedents, is to be referred to this head. (Oids re,
able, like bwaros, regularly takes the Infinitive.) E. g.

Oil yap rjv copa ola to neblov apbeiv,foril was not the proper season
for irrigating the land. Xen. An. II, 3, 13. Toiavras olas \tipJitvos
re areyeiv kol depovs iKavas eivat. Plat. Rep. Ill, 415~E. Loiov-
ros oios irel6ea8ai. Id. Crit. 46 B. Nepdpevoi ra avrcov e/caorot
oo-oi/ airo£j)v, cultivating their own land to an extent sufficient to live
upon it. ThUC I, 2. ^EXeinero rrjs vvktos baov aKoraiovs bieXSeiv
to nebiov, there was left enough of the night for crossing the plain
in lli e dark. Xen. An. 1\'. 1, ■>. *E4>dao~c roaovrov oaov nd^ijT"
dveyvaxe vai to ^rjcpia pa, il came so much in advance (of the other
ship), that Paches had already read the decree. Thuc. Ill, 49. (See
§ 18, 3, b.) Examples like the last strongly resemble those under
§ 98, 1 in which coo-re has rotrouros for its antecedent.

Other pronominal adjectives (as roios, roioabe, rntovrot, ttjXLkos,
troios) sometimes take an Infinitive in the same way.

Note 2. (a.) Certain impersonal vfrbs (like evearri, np e'ir«»,
trpoa-TjKti), which regularly take an Infinitive as their subject

S 93, 2.] INFINITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES, ETC. 195

(§ 91 ), are sometimes used in the Participle in a personal sense, in
which case they may be followed by the Infinitive, the Participle
having the force of one of the adjectives of § 93, 1. Thus ra ivovra
dneiv is equivalent to a eVecxri elirelv, what it is permitted to say ; ra
Tpoo-rjKovra pr}8rjvai is equivalent to a Trpoo-fjKei pndrjvai, what is proper
to be said, as if npoo-rjKei, were a personal verb, and as if we could say
ravra jrpoarjKei, these things are becoming. E. g.

KaTi8a>v to ir\r)6o$ to>v £vovt<x>v flnelv. IsOC. Phil. p. 104 D.
§ 1 10. Tbv 6eov KaXei ov8ei> irpoo~f)Kovr ev yoois tt a paarar etv,
she is calling on the God who ought not to be present at lamentations.
Aesch. Agam. 1079. (Upoo-tjKovra is used like adjectives meaning
fit, proper, as if we could say 6s ov 7rpoo-fi<ei napao-TaTfiv.) *pn£"»
enel irperrtav i'cpvs npo Ta>v8e tbcavelv. Soph. O. T. 9. So ra
fip.lv wapayyeXdevra du^eXdelv ( = a TrapnyyeXdn fjplv diegeXdelv).
Plat. Tim. 90 E.

f,

(b.) In the same way certain adjectives, like biicatos, eVuat-
ios, c7rtTT]8ftos, e7rL8o£os, may be used personally with the
nfinitive ; as 8i<ai6s tori tovto noielv, it is right for him to do this
(equivalent to 8itcat6v ('cttiv avrov tovto noielv). E. g.

$npi Kai 7roXXo5 fieifcopav en tovtcov 8(opea>v 8iKaios tivai rvy-
yaveiv , i. e. that it is right for me to receive, &c. Dem. Cor. 243, 6.
E86kow en iTT]8e mi elvat vn e £ai pe Orj vai, they seemed to be con-
venient persons to be disposed of. Tiiuc. VIII, 70. Qepanevfo-dai
tTTiKalpioi, important persons to be taken care of. Xen. Cyr. VIII, 2,
25. Td8e rot e£ aureW tniboi-a yeveo-dai, it is to be expected that
this will result from it. Hdt. I, 89. (IloXXot inL8oi;oi tuvto tovto
7reicreo-$at, it is to be expected that many loill suffer this same thing,
Id. VI, 12, is an example of the Future Infinitive, § 27, N. 2. So
in English, many are likely to suffer.}

These examples resemble those under § 93, 2.

Note 3. Rarely the Infinitive with to is used after adjectives of
this class. (Compare § 92, 1, N. 3.) E. g.

To 7rpooTa\anra>pelv ov8e\s irpodvpos r\v. Thuc. II, 53.

2. Any adjective may take the Infinitive without the
article as an accusative by synecdoche, showing in what
respect the adjective is applicable to its noun ; as Oeafia
cua'Xfiov opav, a sight disgraceful to look upon.

The Infinitive is here regularly active or middle, sel-
dom passive, even when the latter would seem more
natural ; as %aA,e7rov irotelv, hard to do, seldom %a^e-
ttov it o tela 6 a i, hard to be done. E.g.

.\io~xpbv yap t68( y e'orl jcal eWo/xeVoto-t Trvdeadai, i. e. disgrace-

196 THE INFINITIVE. |_§ 93, 2.

ful for them to hear. H. II, 119. So H. I, 107 and 589. Tois yap
VTTtp tovtcov Xoyouy e'/xot ph dvayKaiordrovs npofinelv nyoipai, vptv
d« xPW-puTciTovs dKoiaat, i. e. most necessary for me to say, and
most useful for you to hear. Dem. Mid. 522, 18. Qofiepos npoo-iro-
Xeprjo-at, a terrible man to fight against. Id. 01. II, 24, 12. Ot/a'a
tfiiarr] ev8 lairdo-dai, a house most pleasant to live in. Xen. Mem.
Ill, 8, 8. Ta xaA£7J-a>raTa evpetv, the things hardest to find: ra
pdo-ra {VTvyx^-veiv., the things easiest to obtain. lb. I, 6, 9. UoXirda
YaX€7rn o~v£fjv , a form of government hard to live under: avopos 8e
(povapxla) xaXe7rij Ka\ fiapwdrn i-woncr} o-ai. Plat. Politic 302 B
and E. Aoyos 8vvaros naTavoijarai, a speech which it is possible to
understand. Id. Phaed. 90 D. cO XP°V0S ^PaX^s a^uas 8inyrj-
aaadai, the time is too short for narrating it properly. Id. Menex.
239 B. 'H 686s enirndda iropevopevois Ka\ \eyeiv Ka\ duovtiv,
convenient both for speaking and for hearing. Id. Symp. 173 B.
HoTfpov 8f Xovo-aodai ybvxportpov (to v8a>p) ; is the water there
colder for bathing? Xen. Mem. Ill, 13, 3.

(Passive.) Kvves alo-xPai opdaSai (instead of opdv). Xen.
Cyneg. HI, 3. "Eoti 8' 6 Xoyos <pikai:ex^Wa>v P^i pn^^vai 8' ovk
dovpcpopos- Isoc. Antid. p. 70, § 115.

Note 1. The Infinitive may be used after adverbs which corre-
spond to the adjectives just mentioned (§ 93, 2). E. g.

IIws av tois pev evvois KaXXiora I8elv iroiolro rr/v t£t'kao~iv, rots
be 8vo-peveo~i. <poPepd>TaTa, in a manner most delightful for the friendly
to behold, and most terrible for the ill-disposed. Xen. Cyr. VIII, 3, 5.

Note 2. Certain nouns, which are equivalent in meaning to the
neuter of any of the adjectives which take the Infinitive, may them-
selves have the same construction. E. g.

Qavpa IB&trOat, a, wonderful thing to behold (like davfiaorov Ibi-
o6ai).

Note 3. (a.) In Homer verbs expressing excellence or fitness
sometimes take the Infinitive (as an accusative by synecdoche),
like the adjectives of § 93, 2. E. g.

"EKTopos rj8e yvvT), os dpiaTeveo-Ke pax^o-dai, this is the wife of
Hector, who ivas the first infighting. II. VI, 460. 'OpnXiKtnv eKenaoro
opvidas yvwvai Kai dvaicnpa pv 6tj<t aad ai . Od. II, 158. Ot jrepl
peu fiovXrjv Aavaibv, irep\ 8' e'crre pax^o-Oai, ye who excel the Danai
in counsel and excel them in battle. II. I, 258. (Here fiovXyv and
pdxeadai, are alike in the accusative by synecdoche after irepl . . .
care.)

(b.) Even in Attic Greek the Infinitive is sometimes used after
v«?rbs as a synecdochical accusative. The Infinitives duove tv, dicov<rai,
in sound, and opdv, Ibelv, in appearance, especially, are used in this
way. E. g.

Aoicels olv rt 8ia#/pt.; avroiis Ibelv x«Xkc»s ; do you think thai

§ 95, 1.] INFINITIVE AS GENITIVE OR DATIVE. 197

ihey differ at all in appearance from a brazier? Plat. Rep. VI, 495
E. Compare eipvrfpoy tSe'd 6ai, II. 111,194. 'AKOucrai nayKaXois
e%ei, it u very fine in its sound. Dem. F. L. 355, 29. UpdypuTa
Trope£ov<riv (of Innoi) en i pe\e <r 6 at , the horses will make trouble
aoout tending. Xen. Cyr. IV, 5, 46.

Note 4. The Homeric use of opoios, equal, like, with the In-
finitive is to be referred to the same principle. E. g.

AevKorepoi xiovos, deleiv 8' avepoio-iv opolot, (horses') whiter than
snow, and like the winds in swiftness. II. X, 437. Oi yap di rig
Sfiolos inianeadat noah rjev. II. XIV, 521.

§ 94. The Infinitive as genitive, dative, or accusa-
tive is very often governed by prepositions, or by adverbs
used as prepositions. In this case it always takes the
article rov, to>, or to. E. g.

Toiis yap \6yovs nepl rov rip. to. t\o~ ao~6 at Qikmnov 6p£> ytyvo-
uevovs, for I see that the speecl^s are made about punishing Philip.
Dem. 01. HI, 28, 5. Upb rov roiis opuovs dnobovvai, before tak-
ing the oaths. Id. Cor. 234, 6. 'Ek tov npbs x^Plv 8npnyopelv
eviovs. Id. 01. HI, 29, 18. Upbs t<o pn8ev etc Trjsnpecrfieias Xaftelv,
besides receiving nothing for the embassy. Id. F. L. 412, 21. "Ei> rw
noXlrnv noieladai (Xapi8r)pov'), in making Charidemus a citizen.
Id. Aristocr. 683,22. "Evexa rov nXela) irotTJ&ai rrjv vndpxovcrav
ovaiav. Isoc. Demon, p. 6 A. § 19. 'Edavpd&TO en) tw ev6vpcos
£rjv. Xen. Mem. IV, 8, 2. 90pa>s 81a. to tjevos eluai ovk au oi'ei
d8iKn6^vai, on account of being a stranger. lb. II, 1, 15. Hdvrcop
8ta(pepcov ((paivero, iea\ els to ra^u pavOdve iv a 8eoi Kai els to KaXa>s
cuao-Ta noielv. Id. Cyr. I, 3, 1.

§ 95. 1. The genitive and dative of the Infinitive,
with the article, may stand in most of the constructions
belonging to those cases ; as in that of the adnominal
genitive, the genitive after comparatives, the genitive
after verbs and adjectives, the dative of manner, means,
&c, the dative after such verbs as iricneva) and after
adjectives denoting resemblance, &c, and sometimes in
that of the genitive of cause or motive. E. g.

Tov it i el v enidv pla, the desire to drink. Thuc. VII, 84. Tlovovs
8e tov £f}f rjbecus rjyepovas vopi^ere. Xen. Cyr. I, 5, 12. Els
i\irL8a rjXdov tov eXelv (rf]v irokiv), i, e. hope of taking the city.
Tnuc. LI, 56. (See § 92, 1, N. 2.) NeW to o-tydv Kpe'iTTov «m
tov XaXelv MENAND. Monos. 387. IlapeicdXei empeXeicrdai tov
us (ppoviiiaTaTov elvai. Xen. Mem. I, 2, 55. So III, 3, 11 Seo

k

198 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 95, 1.

§ 92, 1, N. 5. ('En-t/ifXeo/xat usually takes anas with the Future In*
dicative, by § 45.) 'Enetrxopev tov baupvfiv, we ceated to weep.
Plat. Phaed. 117 E. (See below, § 95, 2.) Kai yap dqdeis toI
KaraKoveiv tivos elo-Lv, for they are unused to obeying any one.
Dem. 01. I, 15, 28.

Ov8ev\ raw ndvToov 7rkeov Ke/cpdrrjice &i\nmos fj tu irpoTepos npbs
rois ivpdypaui yiyveadai. Id. Chers. 92, 21. *AXXa tb (pavepbs
elvai tuiovtos a>v, by making it plain that he was such a man. Xen.
Mem. I, 2, 3. Ov yap 8r) tw ye Koapiccs £r)v afjiov mcrTeveiv, to trust
in an orderly life. Isoc. Antid. p. 315 A. § 24. "low t)e ra> npo-
areveiv. Aesch. Agam. 253. To> £rjv eari ri evavTiov, axnrep tg»
iypnyopevai to Kadevdetv. Plat. Phaed. 71 C.

MtVcas to \tjo~tik6v Kadypei, tov Tas irpoirodovs pdXKov levai avr&S,
in order that greater revenues might come in. Thuc. I, 4.

Note. It will be seen that the nominative and accusative of the
Infinitive (except the accusative after prepositions) regularly stand
without the article ; the genitive and dative regularly with the article.
The Infinitive after the verbs included in § 92, 1, however, gener-
ally stands without the article, whatever case it represents ; and
further, whenever any word which might govern a genitive or da-
tive of the Infinitive forms a part of an expression which is equiv-
alent to any of the verbs of § 92, 1, the simple Infinitive may be
used. (See § 92, 1, Note 2.)

2. After verbs and expressions which denote hin-
drance or freedom from anything, two constructions
are allowed, — that of the simple Infinitive (§ 92,
1), and that of the genitive of the Infinitive with rod
(§ 95, 1).

Thus we can say (a) eXpyei o-e tovto iroielv, and (b) etpyet

<re tov tovto noielv (both with the same meaning), he pre-

. vents you from doing this. As the Infinitive after such verbs

/can take the negative uy without affecting the sense, we have

| a third and a fourth form, still with the same meaning : —

I (c) etpyei ere pr) tovto iroLetv, and (</) etpyei ae to ii pf) tovto

|\»rotfii», he prevents you from doing this. For a fifth form with

the same meaning, see § 95, 3. (For the negative urj, see

Note 1, a.)

If the leading verb is itself negative (or interrogative with a
negative implied), the double negative py oi> is generally used
instead of p-rj in the form (c) with the simple Infinitive, but
seldom (or never) in the form (d) with the genitive of the
Infinitive ; as ovk elpyei je ph ov tovto woie'iv, he does not pre-

Iaa^ W^ ^^ ^w L_ cr\A,cnAj^\ . k uC(L <x\A<

§ 95, 2.] INFINITIVE AFTER VERBS OF HINDRANCE. 199

ven4 you from doing this ; seldom (or never) toC^^ ov tovto
irotrli/. See also § 95, 3. (For the double negative, see
Noto 1, b.) E. g.

(a.) 'Ett\ 'OXivdov diroTrep.irovo~iv, divas e"pya>ai tovs eiceWev eni-
jBorjdelv. Tnuc. I, 62. Ei tovto tis e'ipyet 8pdv okvos, if any
hesitation prevents you from doing this. Plat. Soph. 242 A. *AXXa>s
8e irons ■nopi£eo-6at. to. emTT]8eia opuovs fjdj] '.arc'^oi/ras Tjpds (f/betv).
Xen. An. Ill, 1, 20. Kokov 8e irolov eipye tovt e £ei8evat ; Soph.

0. T. 129. Ev8oicip.e~iv ep-rrobcbv crcpio-iv elvai. Plat. Euthyd.
305 D. IlaiSos &eprjTos, ov davelv eppvadpnu. EUR. Ale. 11. Toy
fy'ikimvov Trap eXd et v ovk e8vvavro Ka>Xio~ai. Dem. Pac. 62, 10.
Tr)v I8eav t?js yfjs ovbev pe KcoXiei Xe'yetp. PLAT. Phaed. 108 E.

(6.) Tow 8e 8 pairereve iv 8eo-pdis dnetpyovo-i ; Xen. Mem. II,

1, 16. To yap \lrev86p.evov (paiveo-dat. Kal tov avyyv6)p.r]s twos
rvyxdve tv e'pTro8(i>v paXiara avBpaoirois yiyverai. Id. Cyr. Ill, 1, 9.
EtWeir oti KooXvcreie (av) tov naieiv emovras- Id. An. I, 6, 2.
'Aireaxdp-^v tov Xaj3elv tov 8ikclLov evena. Dem. F. L. 410, 18.

(c.) Eipye p.r) pXaa-rdveiv. Plat. Phaedr. 251 B. "Onep
ejxe p-i] rfjv IleXoTrovvncrov iropdelv, which prevented him from
ravaging the Peloponnesus. Thcc. I, 73. Aie/cwXvo-e p.r) 8ia(pdel-
pai. Id. Ill, 49. 'Eneyevero KaXvpara prj av En dfjvai. Id. I, 16.
(§ 92, 1, N. 2.) Qvnrovs y erravaa p,i) it po\8e pKeadai popov.
Aesch. Prom. 248. Tovpdv (pvXd^ei. a' dvopa p.r) irdo~xett/ kokcos.
Soph. O. C. 667.

Ov yap can "EXXtjo-i ov8epla e/cSvo-i? fir) ov bovras Xoyov eivai
aovs 8ovXovs. Hdt. VIII, 100. lie pnovcri Kripvua, v7ro8e£dpevot
o~xh°~elv T°v "SiTapTirjTnv pfj ei-ievai. . . . Ov Bvvarol avrrjv lo^eiy
elal 'Apyeloi p.r) ovk e^ie'vai. Id. IX, 12. "Qore £evov y av ov8ev
ovQ\ wo-Trep av vvv, inreKTpairoipnv pf) ov crvve ko a> £e i v. Soph. O.
C. 565. Ti epnoba>v pi) ov^l v(3pi£op.evovs dnodavelv ; Xen. An.
HI, 1, 13. (Ti (fiirabav here implies oi)8ev epTrobuiv.) Tlvos av 8eoio I. t
i \ p.T) ovx' ndpnav evbalpuv elvai; what would hinder you from being || |
J perfectly happy f Id. Hell. IV, 1, 36. So Arist. Kan. 695.

' I (</.) Has yap do-icds 8io dv8pas eget, tov pr) Kara8vvai, i. e.
will keep two men from sinking. Xen. An. Ill, 5, 11. °Oi> ov8els iru>
Trpo6e\s tov p.r/ irkeov e"xeiv dneTpdneTO. TlIUC. I, 76. Ei S' dp'
iaiTobaiv ti avT<o eyevero tov p.rj evflvs Tore 8 tK.do~ao~oai. Dem.
Apatur. 900, 22. 'H-trio-Taro ttjv iroXiv puepbv dnoXmovaav tov p.fj
Ta'is eaxdrais avpcpopals tt e pin e o-eiv • Isoc. Antid. p. 73, § 122.
'AnoaoftovvTes av epnoScov yiyvoivro tov p.rj bpdv avrovs to oXov
arpdrevpa. Xen. Cyr. II, 4, 23. EiSdre? on e'v dacpaXel elai tov
M8ev naBelv. lb. Ill, 3, 31. (See Thuc. VI, 18, quoted § 92,
1, X. 2.) Tov 8e pf) (icaKcor) 7rao-^f " avroi Tvaaav dbetav r/yert,
you were entirely free from fear of suffi ring harm. Dem. F. L. 387,
17. 'Evovar]s ov8epids er dnoo-rpo(prjf tov p.f) Ta xP')JJLaT {Xelp
vpds, there being no longer any escape from the. conclusion that you
h.aw>. taken bribes. Id. Timoc. 702, 26.

"7 "~~^--^ . _____

ZVU ~ / THE INFINITIVE.^ , f§ 95, 2.

D Oj£- V7CfP '

Kemark> " Ths last two examples show that fifj can be joined
with the genitive of the Infinitive, even after nouns implying hin-
drance or freedom. In the two following the addition of /xt) is more
peculiar : —

H dnopla tov fir) r)(rv)(d£civ, the inability to rest. ThtTC. II, 49.
H roii /X77 gvp.n'Xelv dirioria, the distrust of sailing with them; i. e. the
unwillingness to sail, caused by distrust. Id. Ill, 75.

Note 1. (a.) The use of uij with the Infinitive in the
forms c and d is to be referred to the general principle, by
which the Infinitive after all verbs expressing a negative idea
(as those of denying, distrusting, concealing, forbidding, &c.)
can always take the negative /xtJ, to strengthen the negation
implied in the leading verb. Thus we say dpvuTcu p.rj dXrjdh
tlvat tovto, he denies that this is true ; dirnyopeve (ivdeva tovto
ttokiv, he forbade any one to do this. This negative mav, how-
ever, be omitted without affecting the sense.

(b.) An Infinitive which for any reason would regularly
take fir/ (either affecting the Infinitive itself, as an ordinary
negative, or strengthening a preceding negation, as in the case
just mentioned) generally takes the double negative /xij ov, if
the verb on which it depends is itself negative. Thus the
example given above, dpveirai p.f) dXrjdes elvai tovto, becomes, if
we negative the leading verb, ovk dpve'trai p,f} ovk d\r]6es elvai
tovto, he does not deny that this is true. So, when the original
\J\ really negatives the Infinitive, as in 8Uu6i> eWi p.f) tovtov
dcpUvai, it is just not to acquit him, — if we negative the leading
verb, we shall have o v 8Uai6v eo-rt p.f] ov tovtov dqbievai, it is
not just not to acquit him. See Plat. Rep. IV, 427 E, o>s
o\>x oaiov croi ov /117 ov fiondeiv dacaiocrvvn. This applies also to
the Infinitive with to (§ 95, 3).

Mr) oi is occasionally used before participles, and even before

nouns, on the same principle, to express an exception to a statement

• containing a negative; as in Plat. Lys. 210 D, ovk apa earl diiXov

Jf-rw (piXovvTi oiibev p.fj ovk dvrKpiKovv, unless it loves in return. Here,

1 if the negatives (ovk and ov8ev) were removed from the leading

verb, we should have simply pi) dvTifyikovv (with the same meaning),

^which would be the ordinary form with the participle, even after a

^negative. So p.i) ovk eovres, unless they ivere. Hdt. VI, 9. So in

DEM. F. L. 379, 7, we find al re -rroXtis noWa! Ka\ ^aXe7rai Aa/3eZi>,

l[uj) ov XP°V<? KaL iroXiopKtq, the cities were many and difficult (= not

easy) to capture, except by Ion" siege.

Li ' ' ' t ' * / ' -== ;—

Remark. M^ ov is very rarely found where the leading verb
does not at least imply a negative. In Xen. An. II, 3, 11, ware
iraaiv alcrxvvTjv rival pr) ov <Tv<rnov8d£fiv, so that all were ashamed
not to join heartily in the work, the double negative may be explained
by the negative idea of unwillingness inipbed in alo-xvvnv. See also
the last example under N. 1.

Note 2. "When the leading verb expressing hindrance, &c. is
itself negative, the form c, pr) ov with the Infinitive, is the most com-
mon. The form a, the Infinitive alone, is allowed after negative
(as well as affirmative) verbs, as in Dem. Pac. 62, 10, quoted above
under a. The form b, tov with the Infinitive (without fit]), is not
used after negative verbs, according to Madvig.

Even in the form c, we sometimes find the single negative pr) (for
pr) ov), even when the leading verb is negative. E. g.

Ov noXvv xpovov p into~xov pr) pe vavaToXtlv ra^u. Soph. Phil.
349. Ov8e p' opparos (ppovpav napr/Xde, rovde pr) Xetaativ aroXov. *7 *0
Id. Trach. 226. (Mi) ov here is a conjecture.) Mw*w '

3. The Infinitive preceded by to fitj is sometimes ~.\?)
used after verbs and expressions denoting hindrance, «• n-tU.
and also after all expressions which even imply preven " * *"*
tion. omission, or denial. l !^^

This Infinitive with to is less closely connected than the jt<-*\
simple Infinitive with the leading verb, and often denotes ir*-<-c
merely the result of the prevention or omission of anything : it tJyll
may generally be explained as an accusative by synecdoche, or J
sometimes as an object accusative (as after verbs of denial). >
Here, as before (§ 95, 2), if the leadTng~verb is itself negative, . ,, '
or interrogative with a negative implied, pr) oi> is generally \.(^j
used instead of pr). E. g. ^ ^ i ^

Tov 7rX«<rroi> opCkov eipyov to fir) irpoe^iovTas tu>v oiiku>v Ta eyyin (-,/t«^.
ttjs iroXews KaKovpyeiu, they prevented them from injuring, &c. /ji/x
Thuc Ill, 1. (This adds & fifth expression, e'lpyei ae to fir) toxito *■

|| noielu, to the four already given (§ 95, 2) as equivalents of the
I English, he prevents you from doing this.) TA 8t pr) XerjXar 7 irnt
[ Tr)v ttoXiv £trye ToSe. HdT. V, 101. &6(3os Tt l*vyy(vr]s to fiS^a.81-
Keiv cr^i/crei. AESCII. Eum. 691. Oxjtoi tiaiv povoi 4ti r)p'iv ffiTrobcbp
rop rf~rf8r) etvai evda ndXai icrnevSopev. Xen. An. IV, 8, 14. Ovk
aneaxoprfv to pr) ov k en\ tovto iXOdv. Plat. Rep. I, 354 B.
Ovk aneaxovTO ov$ dtro tu>v (piXcov to prj ov^J nXeoveicTflp avTa>v
neipdo-dat. Xen. Cyr. I, 6, 32. Klpcova napa. Tpcls dcpelaav
\\rr)(povs to pr) davdrco £rjpicoo~at, i. e. they alloiced Cimon by three
-^ votes to escape the punishment of death. Dem. Aristocr. 688, 27

I Q :tr

202 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 9f>, 3.

Tpe'is $t povai yf/r)(f)oi, bif]v.yKav to pfj Bavarov Tipfjo-ai, and on<l>
three votes prevented you from- condemning him to death (lit. made the
difference as to condemning, &c). lb. 676, 12. &6fios yap dvd' \mvov
napao-raTii to pfj /Je/Jatcos fiXtCpapa o-vpfia\elv vrrva, i. e. stands
by to prevent my closing my eves, &c. Aescii. Agam. 15.

'E7T61 Trpodvpe~iad\ ovk ivavrimaopat Topfjovyfycovelv nav oo-op
rrpoo-xpuCere. Id. Prom. 786. Ovdtv yap avrS tovt twapKeaet to pn
ov neo-elv dripas irTvpaT ovk dvaaxeTa, this will not suffice to pre-
vent him from falling, &c. lb. 918. AetVet pev oiJS' a TrpooSey tjSepev
to pf) ov Papvo-Tov el vat, they lack nothing of being heavily griev-
ous. Soph. O. T. 1232. Mtjtol, KaaiyvfjTn, p dripdo-ys to pf) ov
Oavclv re avv <to\,tov davovra ff ayvio ai, do not think me too mean
to die with thee, &c. Id. Ant. 544. (Cf. Ant. 22, and Oed. Col. 49.)
Avrrjv pf)v ov piaovvr imivr]v ttjv ttoKlv to pf) ov peyd\nv aval.
<pvo-ei icevbaipova, i. e. not grudging the city its right to be great, &c.
Arist. Av. 36. (Compare plo-na-iv piv kvo-\ Kvppa yeveadai, II.
XVII, 272 } Oi3S«s dz/rtXeyet to pf) ov Xe£eiv o ti eicaojos fryeiTai
Tr\tlo-Tov a^t w eirio-Tao-Oai, no one objects to saying, &c. Xen. Conv.
Ill, 3. OuS' apvr]0-is eo-Tiv avTols to pi] Tav6" virep QiKiiritov ivpaT-
Tf iv, it is not even possible for them to deny that they did these things
in the interest of Philip. Dem. F. L. 392, 13. My napjjs to PJlJiX-
tbpdo-ai, do not omit to speak, of it. Soph. O. T. 283. &v8iva
$vvao~6ai Kpiirreiv to fir\ ov'y fjdeas av Kai e>p.5>u ifrfileiv auxav. that
n6~one is able to prevent people from knowing that he would gladly
even eat some of them raw. Xen. Hell. Ill, 3, 6.

For pf) ov, see § 95, 2, Note 1, (p.).

Note. The simple negative form to pi] is sometimes found even
when the leading verb is negative, where regularly to pfj ov would
be used. This is more common here than in the corresponding
ease, § 95, 2, Note 2. E. g.

OvK_aK_ig^<yw> to pf) diroKXjjcrai Tovpbv&ffXiov bsjias. Soph.
O. T. 1387. Tis o-oii dnikdcpdr) to pf) aoi aicoXovdelv; Xex.
Cyr. V, 1, 25. "Akos 8' ovdev eirfjpKeaav to pfj no\iv pev Sxnrep ovv
cvet iradelv. Aesch. Agam. 1170. Ovk av eo-Ti prjxavf) ovbepta to
pi) Kfivov enifiovXeveiv epol. Hdt. I, 209. Kal cbrjpl dpaaai,
KoitK a7ra^p^£curoj£^. Soph. Ant. 443. See also JDem. F. L.
392fl3, quoted aboveT

Remark. To pf] and tov pf] can of course be used with the In-
finitive as ordinary negatives. See examples, § 92, 1, N. 3. So
fTTipcXelrai tov pf) 8Lkt)v dovvai.

§ 96. The Infinitive with its subject, object, or other
adjuncts (sometimes including dependent verbs) may
be preceded by the article to, the whole sentence stand-
ing as a single noun, either as the subject or object of a

I 97.] INFINITIVE EXPRKSSING A PURPOSE. 203

rerb, as the object of a preposition, or in apposition
with a pronoun like tovto. E. g.

To pev yap 7roXXa aTToXaXe Kevai Kara tov troXepov rr/s fjfitrepat
apeXeias av tis delr) SiKalcos ' to fie M7?1"6 iraXai tovto nenovdevai
)re(pr)vevat Te Tiva vpiv crvppa^iav tovtcov avrlpponov, av fiovXwpeda
Xprjo~dai., ttjs 7ttip' etceivoav eiivolas evepyernpH av eyu>ye delrjv. DEM. OL

1, 12, 3.

§ 97. The Infinitive without the article often ex-
presses sl purpose. E. g.

Tpaxuf avdpa eicao~Tov (et) eXoipeda olvoxoeveiv, if we should
choose every man of the Trojans to be our cup-bearer. II. II, 127. So
H. I, 338, fiov aye iv, and II, 107, 108. Ti)v e^'Ape'iov ndyov jSouXiji/'
en eo-Tr)o-at ew ipeXeiadai ttjs evKoo-plas, i. e. for the purpose of
guarding ycod order. Isoc Areop. p. 147 B. § 37. Ot ap^ovres, ols
vpeis elXeaBe apx^iv pov, the rulers, whom you chose to rule me.
Plat. Apol. 28 E. Ae*a fie to>v vewv TrpovrrepyJ/av es tov peyav Xipeva
nXeii o~ ai re /cat Karaa"/ce\i/aa-#ai, /cat ktj pv ^ui , k.t.X-, i. e. they sent
them to sail and examine, and to proclaim, &c. Thuc. VI, 50. Tovs
imreas Trapet'ywro HeXoTTovvno-'uns £vo~TpaTeveiv. Id. II, 12.
Evvefirjo-av Tots nXarateOirt napadouvai acpas avTovs Ka\ to bnXa,
Xpr)o-ao~dai o ti av fiouXavTai, i. e. to do with (hem whatever they
pleased. Id. II, 4. (For napabovvai see § 92, 1, N. 1.) Et /3ouXot-||
pe6d tco iiriTpetyai r) iraldas iraidevaai , r) xPr)paTa fitao"cocrai,/l
k.t.X., if we should wish to intrust to any one either children to instruct I
or money to keep, &c. Xen. Mem. I, 5, 2. At yvvaiKfs irieiv (pepov-
crat, the women bringing them ^something) to drink. Xen. Hell. VII,

2, 9. Tr)v noXiv /cat tt)v axpav (pvX&TT e iv avTois napedaKav, they
delivered the city and the citadel to them to guard. lb. IV, 4,15. *Or
yap av vpds Xadn, toi/tov dcpiere rots 6(ois KoXd£e iv . Dem. F. L.
363, 25.

'H 6vpa tj epr) dveaxTO elarievai rcS fieopeeco ti epov. Xen. Hell.
V, 1, 14. Ovk el%ov dpyvpiov eiritTir L£eo~6ai, they had no money to
buy provisions, id. An. VII, 1, 7. 'Apio-rapxcp efiore fjpepav aTroXo-
yrjo-aOai, i. e. a day to defend himself in. Id. Hell. I, 7, 28. 'Euav
tov trot eppeXerav irapexew ov ndvv fie'So/crat. Plat. Phaedr. 228 E.
Ot? evevBaipovrjaai Te 6 fiios opotcos Kal e vTeXevTrjaai £vvep.e-

Tp^On. Thuc. II, 44.

Here, as in § 93, 2, the Infinitive is generally active or middle,
even where the passive would seem more natural ; as kTovTIv ipoi
viv i'doaav, they gave her to me to be killed. Eur. Troad. 874.

Note 1. The Infinitive is thus used in prose chiefly after verbs
signifying to choose or appoint, to give or take (the Infinitive denot-
ing the purpose for which anything is given or taken), and also
after those signifying to send or bring. (See the examples.) With
*hfc last class the Future Participle is more common. A final clause
after tea. &c. may also be used in the same sense. f ■ ^ _.

, r ^ , r^

I

204 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 97.

In poetry the same construction sometimes occurs after verbs of
motion, like eipi, tJko), and $aiva>\ and also af'tei dpi, k'neipi,
and ndpeipi (to be, to be at hand) , expressed or understood. E. g

'AXXci tis fin eiireiv 'Arpeidrj 'Ayapepvovi, iroipevi Xacov, but lei
some one go to tell Agamemnon. Od. XIV, 496. (See Passow, s.v.
eipi.) B77 8e Beetv, and he started to run. II. II, 182. OvSe tis
to-rcv apr/v ko.1 Aoryov dpvvai, nor is there any one to keep off curse
and ruin. H. XXIV, 489. II0XX01 8' av crol 'A^atot evaipe pt v 01
Ke Svvnai, i. e.for you to slay ichomsoever you can. II. VI, 229. Oi)
yap eir' dvrjp oios 'Odvaaevs ecricev, dprjv dnb o'ikov dpvvai. Od. II,
59. Mavddveiv yap rJKopev, for we are come to learn. Soph. O
C. 12. IlXoKapos o8e karaarecpe ip, here is my hair for you to
wreathe. Eur. Iph. Aul. 1478.

Even in prose, the Infinitive occasionally occurs after dpi in this
sense, as in Plat. Phaedr. 229 A, €Ke1 woa Ka8i£e<rdai (sc. ea-nv),
there is grass to sit upon. See also Xen. An. II, 1, 6, 770XX1U 8e ko\
nigral Kai apa£ai rjaav (pepeo-dai epnpoi, i. e. they were left to be
carried away (for fuel). See the last examples under § 97.

Note 2. As wore is seldom used in Homer in its sense of

so as (§ 98, N. 3), the simple Infinitive may there express a

result as well as a purpose. It thus follows many expressions

which would not allow it in Attic Greek. E. g.

Tis t ap <T(pa>€ 6ea>v epibi ^wentce paxevQai; i. e. who brought
them into conflict, so as to contend? II. I, 8. So I, 151 ; and epi£epe-
vai, II, 214. 'AXX' ore 8tj koiXt] vr/vs ^Y^ero roiai ve e <rd at , when
now their ship was loaded, so as (to be ready) to start. Od. XV,
457. Xepvifia 8' dpcpinoXos 7rpo)(6m eW^eue (pepovcra, . . . . vi\jsa-
srdat, i. e.for washing. Od. I, 138.

Note 3. In Homer and Herodotus we often find eivai intro-
duced to denote a purpose, where in Attic Greek a simple noun, as
a predicate accusative or nominative, connected directly with the
leading verb, would be sufficient. E. g.

Qa>pT)ica, tov TTore ol Kivvprjs SwKe ^eivrjiov e ivai, l. e. which they
gave him as a present (lit. to be a present). H. XI, 20. Aidov eiXero
XflPL 7raXe'?7' T®v P nvbpes Trporepoi 6e<rav e ppevai ovpov dpovprjs,
which they had placed (to be) as a boundary. II. XXI, 405. Aapuos
Kara<TTT)(Tas 'Apracpepvea virapxov eivai SupStav. Hdt. V, 25.

So in the passive construction : — TeXoov d-rrebex^7] 7vda-rjS rr)s "imvov
eivai Imrapxos. Hdt. VH, 154.

Even in Attic prose this use of eivai sometimes occurs ; as in Dem.
Aph. Ill, 852, 12, Mvrjpovevovaiv dcpedevra tovtov eXevdepov eivai
Tore, they remember his having been then manumitted so as to be a free-
man. So d<piTjcriv aiira brjpocria eivai, TllUC. II, 13.

Note 4. The use of the Infinitive after the comparative anl £,
4t*m, is to be referred to this principle. E. g.

§ 98, 2.] INFINITIVE AFTER "Q(TT€. 205

H avopconlvr] cpvois dcrdeveoTepa fj Xaftelv re)(vriv cov av r/ arreipog,
human nature is too weak to acquire the art of those things of which it
has no experience. Plat. Theaet. 149 C. To yap voarjfia pei^ov 9
tpepetv, i. e. too great to bear. Soph. O. T. 1293.

"Qore is sometimes expressed before this Infinitive ; as in Xen.
Hell. IV, 8, 23, "Utcrdovro aiirbv eXdrrco e^ovra 8vvap.iv fj coarre Toil!
(piXovs cocpeXetv.

So, rarely, cos in the sense of wore (§ 98, Note I) ; as in Cyr. VI,
4, 17, Tar dcnridas pei£ovs e\ovcnv r) cos Trotelv tl Ka'i Spa v.

§ 98. 1. The Infinitive is used after (bo-re, so that,
%o as, to express a result. E. g.

Hi/ neTraiSevpevos ovrcos cocrre rrdvv p,i<pa Keicrrfpevos iraw pqbicos
eye ii/ dpKovvra, he had been educated so as very easily to have enough,
although he possessed very little. Xen. Mem. I, 2, 1. <&vvai 8e 6
Kiipns Xeyerai (piXoriporaros, cocrre ndvra pev novov dvarXrjvai,
Ttavra 8e Kivbvvov vitop.el.vai. Id. Cyr. I, 2, 1. 'Anexpn yap civ roil
yvcocr&eicTiv e'ppeveiv, cocrre pr)8ep.iav j]piv etvai npbs tovtov diacpopdv,
so that we should have no difference with him. Dem. A ph. I, 813", 4.
IloXXds eXnidas i'xco dpKOvvrcos epeiv, cocrre vpas prjr' dnoX e icpdrj •
vai rcov npaypdrcov p.r]T dyvorjcrai, kt.X- lb. 813, 20. Toiovtov
e0os rjpiv irapibotrav, coo-re . . . crvveXO eiv e's ravrov. IsOC. Fan. p.
49 B. § 43. See Pan. § 45, roaovrov ecrrtv, ware Ka\ tovto rrepiei-
Xr/cpd at. Tleicropac yap ov toctovtov ovdev cocrre p.fj ov koXcos
davelv. Soph. Ant. 97. 2v be axoXdc^eis, cocrre 8avpd£e iv e'pe.
Eur. Hec. 730. Mn&' rj /3/a in prjbapcos viKrjadrco rocrovbe /^icreu/
mo-re ttjv 8iki]v tt arete. Soph. Aj. 1335. Aoycov «ai ftovXevparcov
Koivcovbv civ ere ttoioIvto, cocrre p-qbe ev ae XeXndevai cov ftovXopeda
eifievai, so that not a single one of the things we wish to know should
have escaped you. Xen. Cyr. VI, 1, 40. (See § 18, 3, b.) Avcr-
KoXia Kol pavia noXXaKis eis ttjv Bidvoiav epninTs-Vcriv ovrcos cocrre /cat
ras eiricrrrjpas e icftdXXe iv . Id. Mem. Ill, 12,6. 'AnoXr]<pdevros,
Sttcrre pi] av hvvacrd ai eiraveXdeiv o'Uade. Dem. Chers. 98, 25.
(For bvvao-dai av see N. 4.)

See § 93, 1, Note 1, last example.

Remark. When the result is to be stated as an inde-
pendent fact, rather than merely as a result, the Indicative
is used after coo-re. See § 65, 3.

2. The Infinitive after oxrre sometimes denotes a con-
dition, being equivalent to the Infinitive after e<f> &> or
e<f> <p re; and sometimes it denotes a purpose, like a
final cause. E. g.

Tloiovvrai SpoXiyiav npbs LTu^jjra, cocrre 'Adfyea cur e' £ e t e a t jSov-

206 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 98, 2.

Xewcu irept tS>v M.vTiXnvalatv, they make, a treaty icith Paches, to (he
effect that the Athenians shall be permitted, &c. Thuc. Ill, 28. (See
THUC III, 114, ^vppax'iav enoiTjaavro k-rri roia8e, Stare . . . . pfj
arpareveiv.) 'E£oi/ avrols rotv Xonrotv dpxeiv EXXrjveov, otar
clvtovs viraKoveiv fiaaiXei, it being in their power to rule the rest of
the Greeks, on condition that they should themselves serve the King.
Dkm. Phil. II, 68, 12. Udv itoioiaiv, Sao- re bUnv ur) 8i86vai, they
do everything, so that they may not suffer punishment. Plat. Gorg.
479 C. (Here Tva p.rj witL the Subjunctive might have been used.)
'E^ovXrjdrjaav 'EXevaiva e£i8iotaaadai, a are elvai a(ftiai raracftvyriv,
el 8ef]aeie. Xen. Hell. 11,4,8. Mrjxaval rroXXai elaiv, ware 8ia-
(pevyeiv Qdvarov, there are many devices for escaping death. Plat.
Apol. 39 A. (See § 92, 1, N. 2.)

Note 1. 'Qs is sometimes used with the Infinitive instead
of dare ; generally, however, to express a result, seldom to
express & purpose. E. g.

'Y^rnXbv 8e ovrat 8f] ri Xeyerai, o> t ras Kopvcpds airov ovx oid re
eivat I8ea6ai, and it {the mountain) is said to be so high, that it is not
possible to see its sianmits. Hdt. IV, 184. NavpaxTjaavres avrinaXa
p.kv Kai u> s avrovs itcarepovs d^iovv vikclv, and so that each thought
themselves the victors. Thuc. VII, 34. Biaaopeda, cos nXeoveKTovvres
bUnv prj 8i86vai. Plat. Rep. II, 365 D. 'O 7rnrapds roaoiiros to
fiddos, ots pn8e rd 86para vn e pe \e IV T0^ ftddovs- Xen. An. Ill, 5,
7. So II, 3, 10. Qepovrai Ktitdotva, cos otto rov worapov dpvaaadai.
Id. Cyr. I, 2, 8. 'Ef too da(ftaXel rj8n eaovrai, cos prj8ev dv en kcikov
navel v. lb. VIII, 7, 27. (For iraQelv av see N. 4.)

Xote 2. The Infinitive with Stare or cos is sometimes used where
we should expect a simple Infinitive, either after the adjectives and
adverbs included in § 93, or after the verbs and expressions which
take the Infinitive of the object (§ 92, 1, and N. 2) ; and rarely
after those which regularly take an Infinitive as the subject (§ 91).
E.g.

HoTfpa 7rai8es elai (ppovip,otrepoi Stare padelv rd <ppa£opeva n
av8pts ; i. e. are they wiser than men in learning, &c ? Xen. Cyr.
IV, 3, 11. 'OXi'yot kap.kv at s eyxpare'is eivai auratv. lb. IV, 5, 15.
(Cf. dXLyai dpiveiv, too few to make a defence. Thuc. I, 50.)
<irvxp'»> (ear i to Z8cop) Stare Xovaaadai, the water is cold for
bathing. Xen. Mem. Ill, 13, 3. (Cf. Xovaaadai tyvxporepov,
and depporepov irielv, in the same section.) ^n(ftiadpevoi avro\
77 pcoroi Stare ndarj npodvpiq dp.vveiv, having voted to defend them,
&c. TlIUC VI, 88. Els dvayKrjv KaB'earapev Stare Kiv8vveveiv.
Isoc. Archid. p. 126 C. § 51. (See § 92, 1, N. 2.) So 8vvap.iv
vare kyyeveadai, Plat. Rep. IV, 433 B. 'EXdovres Trpos avrovs
neidovaiv Stare perd acftwv " \pyei en i^e ipJjcrai. Thuc. Ill, 102.
(In the same chapter, neidei 'Aicapvdvas fiondrjaai NavjraKTa).)

TLavx poi epeXnaev Stare el8evai, it concerned me very much to

§ 100.] INFINITIVE AFTER 'E<£' gi AND 'E<£' WTf. 207

know. Xen. Cyr. VI, 3, 19. 'Abvvarov vplv Stare Ilpcorayopov
roibe trocpcorepov riva eXeadat. Plat. Prot. 338 C. So Xen.
Mem. I, 3, 6.

Note 3. In Homer coo- re is generally used like cbtnrep, in the
sense of as. It occurs with the Infinitive, in the sense of so as, only
twice: II. IX, 42; Od. XVII, 21. 'Qj, so as, so that, is not found
in Homer, who generally uses the simple Infinitive where later
writers would insert coare or coy. (See § 9 7, N. 2.)

Note 4. The Infinitive after wore may take the adverb av to
form an apodosis, whenever an Indicative or Optative, if used in
the place of the Infinitive, would have required an av. (See § 65,
3, Note.) The Infinitive with av here, as in indirect quotations, fol
lows the general rule stated in § 41. (See example in § 41, N. 4 ;
and the last examples under § 98, 1 and § 98, 2, N. 1.)

Note 5. It will be seen that the Present and Aorist are the
tenses of the Infinitive regularly used after coo-re. For the perfect
see § 18, 3, and Note ; and for the Future, § 27, N. 2 (6).

§ 99. The Infinitive is used after e<f> u> and e</> (pre,
on condition that, for the purpose of. E. g.

"Einev on anelcracrdai (BovXoiro, icp a prjre avros rovs 'EXXrjvas
dbacelv p-r]Ti e<elvovs Kale iv ras oiKias, X a p. /3 d ve i v re raTrirrjdeia
ocrcov beoivro. Xen. An. IV, 4, 6. Ucos av ovros edeXoi ra dXXnrpia
dnoarepelv e(p' oi KaKodot-os etvat; Id. Ages. IV, 1. 'Acplepev ae,
e—\ rovrco pevroi, e(p' core prjKeri (p iXocrocp elv . Plat. Apol. 29
C. Alpede'vrese'cp'core £vyypdij/ai vdtiovs, <ad ovcrrivas noXirev-
croivro Xen. Hell. II, 3, .11. (For nokirevanivro. see § 65, 1, N.
1 ) 'E<£' core ^ondweiv. AESCHIN. Cor. § 1 1 4 See § 27, N. 2 (b).

For the Future Indicative after e'<f) co and e'cp' core, especially in
Herodotus and Thucydides, see § 65, 2.

§ 100. The Infinitive may stand absolutely in par-
enthetical phrases, sometimes alone, but generally pre-
ceded by o>? or baov. E. g.

To AeXra eo~r\ Kardppvrov re Kai vecotrri, cos \6ycoel7re~1v , dya-
ntfprjvds, i. e. recently, so to speak. Hdt. H, 15. (This expression
cos Xdycp elntlv is peculiar to Herodotus.) Kai cos e'pe ev pepvr)-
o~6ai, ret 6 eppnvevs poi emXeyopevos ra ypdppara efpr/, as I well re-
member, &c. Id. II, 125. 'Qs pev wv ev eXaxi-o-rco bnXcbcrai, ndv
eipnrai ' .... cos be ev irXtovi Xdycp S^Xaxrai , cobe e'x«- Id. 11, 2o.
Mera be, ov iroXXco Xoyco e In elv, \P°V0S bte<pv. Id. I, 61. Kai
epyov, cos etros elirelv, r) ovbevos irpocrbeovrai f/ /^pay^'os ndw. FLAT.
Gorg. 450 P. 'Sis be trvvropcos elnelv, to speak concisely- Xen
Oec. XII, 19. 'Qs be crvveXovri e In elv. Id. Mem. HI, 8, -()

208 THE INFINITIVE. § 100.

X&ipoy 8' oS' Ipos, a>s dneiKaaai. Sopii. O. C. 16. Kai to £vpnav
eiirelv. Thuc. I, 138. (So VI, 82, es to d<cpi/3er etTrelv.) 'Qs
fiiKpov peydXa elicda-ai. Id. IV, 36. "$2j y tpoi XPV °~ @al Kpirfj.
Eur. Ale. 801. 'Qs 7rpor v/iaj eiprja-#ai, i. e. between us. Plat.
Rep. X, 595 B. Ov8' e'yoi yj/eyo) tovtovs, "u>s ye btaicovovs elvai
j-o'Xewr. Plat. Gorg. 517 B. "Oaov yi pe elbevai, at least asfaras
1 know. Id. Theaet. 145 A.

So its e/xol 8 o k e I v or epoi SoKeiv, like a>s epoi 8ok(7, as it seems
to me; dXiyov 8eiv, to want little, i. e. almost. (See N. 1.)

Remark. The force of a>r in this construction can hardly be ex-
pressed in English, although it resembles that of ats used for coo-re
in § 98, 2, Note 1. That it is not a demonstrative, as might be sup-
posed from the translation of £>s elnelv, so to speak, is plain from such
expressions as cos avvropoos elnelv, to speak concisely.

Note 1. In the phrase dXiyov 8elv (lit. to want little), little

short of, almost, delv is often omitted, so that the genitive

oXtyov stands alone in the sense of almost. E. g.

'OXiyov <ppov8os yeytvrjpat, I am almost gone. Arist. Nub. 722.
The full form is found at the beginning of Dem. Phil. Ill, — IIoX-
\&» Xoycov yiyvopevcov dXiyov deiv ko.6' eKaarnv eKKXnaiav, i. e. in
almost every meeting.

Note 2. In the phrase encov elvai (sometimes t6 eV»v
elvai), willing or willingly, elvai appears to be superfluous : the
phrase is used chiefly in negative sentences. "Elvai appears
superfluous also in such expressions as to vvv elvai, at present, t6
rfoepov that, to-day, and to in iiceivois eivai, as far as depends
on them. E. g.

'Ekcov yap elvai ovdev yjrevo-opai, willingly I will tell no falsehood.
Plat. Symp. 215 A. Ovk copnv ye Kar dp%as into aov enovros elvai
e^aTraTT]6r]o-eo-6ai. Id. Gorg. 499 C. ('Avdyxrj e'xeiv) ri)v d^evdeiav
Kai t 6 eicovras e i v a i prjSapfj Trpoa-dexeoSai to -^revbos. Id. Rep. VI,
485 C. 'Anoxpl pot to vvv elvai tovt elprjKe'vai. Isoc. Antid. p.
119, § 270. To en eiceivois elvai dncoXaXtiTe. Xex. Hell. Ill, 5, 9.
To pev TTjpepov elvai \pi\o-ao-6ai alrr), to use it to-day. Plat. Crat
396 E. Kara T0D70 elvai, in this respect. Id. Prot. 317 A.

Similar is the expression ttjv npcornv elvai (for ttjv Trpoornv), at
first, in Hdt. I, 153. So as ndXaia elvai, considering their an-
tiquity. Thuc. I, 21.

§ 101. The Infinitive is sometimes used in the
sense of the Imperative, especially in Homer. E. g.

T^> vvv pn nore Kai o~v yvvaiKi nep jjnios eivai' prj oi piidov anavra
n Kpavo-Kepev, ov k ev elbjjs, dXXct to pev (pdaOai, to 8e Kai «-

§ 104.] INFINITIVE USED IMPERATIVELY, ETC. 209

Kpvfifitvov etvai, now therefore be thou never indulgent to thy wife, &c.
Od. XI, 441. So II. I, 20, 582; II, 10 : Hdt. I, 32 (eWX««v pqde
KaXeeiv) : AESCH. Prom. 712. 2v be ras irvXas avoi^as iiit e K.6eiv
Kai eireiye adat, and do you, having opened the gates, rush out and
press on. Thuc. V, 9.

Remark. It will be noticed that, when the Infinitive stands
for the Imperative, its subject is in the nominative, but in the
four constructions that follow (§§ 102-105) its subject is in the
accusative.

§ 102. The Infinitive is sometimes used for the
Optative in the expression of a wish referring to the
future. This occurs chiefly in poetry. E. g.

Zev irdrep, ij A'iavra X a x e t v fi Tvbeos viov, Father Zeus, may the
lot fall on Ajax or on the son of Tydeus. II. VII, 179. 'Epp.a 'fino-
Xaie, rav yvvalica rav ip.au ovrco p.' an o 8 6 cr 6 a i rdv r epavrov parepa,
O that I could sell my wife and my mother at this rate! Arist.
Acharn. 816. Qeo\ 7roXtrat, p.r\ ue bovXeias Tv\el.v. Aesch. Sept.
253.

§ 103. In laws, treaties, proclamations, and formal
commands, the Infinitive is often used in the leading
sentences, depending on some word like eoofe or 8e-
Sofcrai, be it enacted, or tceXeveTcu, it is commanded;
which may be either understood, or expressed in a pre-
ceding sentence. E. g.

Tapias be t£>v lepmv xP^pdrav aipelaOai p.ev in t5>v p.eyi<TT<ov
Tip,r)paTa)V • ttjv be alpeo-LV tovtoov kiu ttjv boKipao-iav yiyveo-dai
Kaddirep fj rwi/ o-rparr^yav eyiyvero, and (be it enacted) that treasurers
of the sacred funds be chosen, &c. Plat. Leg. 759 E. So in most
of the laws (genuine or spurious) standing as quotations in the text
of the Orators, as in Dem. Aristocr. 627, 21: At K.d£etv be ttjv tv
'Apft'cp rrdycp (povov /cat rpavparos e< irpovoias, k.t.X. "Ettj be el vat.
ras o-novbds nfVTTjKovra, and that the treaty shall continue fifty years.
Thuc. V, 18. 'Aicovere Xeco' tovs oirXiras wvpevi dveXopevovs dumXa
air leva i ndXtv o'Uabe. Arist. Av. 448.

§ 104. The Infinitive, with or without to, is used
in expressions of surprise or indignation. E. g.

To be prjbe kvvtjv o"iK.o6ev eXBelv epe rbv naKobalpov exovra, but to
think that I, wretched fellow, should have come from home withmt even
my cap ' Arist. Nub. 268. Toirov be v/3pt£etv; dvairvelv be;

N

210 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 104.

01/ et tis ea £r)v, aycmav e8ei. Dem. Mid. 582, 2. Ttjs paplas • to
Aia vopi^eiv, ovra ttjKikovtovI, what folly! to believe in Zeus, now
you are so big ! Arist. Nub. 819.

Compare Verg. Aen. I, 37 : Mene incepto desistere victam.

§ 105. In narration the Infinitive often appears to
stand for the Indicative. It depends, however, on some
word like Xeyerat,, it is said, expressed (or at least im-
plied) in something that precedes. E. g.

'Anucopevovs 8e tovs <&oiviicas is 8r) To"Apyos tovto, 8iaTi6ear6ai
tov (j)6prov, and (they say) that the Phoenicians, when now they were
come to this Argos, were setting out their cargo for sale. Hdt. I, 1.
(Here SiariOeo-dai is an Imperfect Infinitive, § 15, 3.) "'AXX', gj
iral," (pdvai tov 'Ao-rvdyrjv, " ovk ax^opevoi ravra TTtpm\av(ope6a.
.... "AXXa Kai ire" (pdvai tov Kvpov, " 6pa>" K.r.X. . . . Kai tov
^AaTvdynv eaepeadai, " Kai rivi 8r) av Texpatpopevos Xeyeis;"
""Ort ere," (pdvai, " Spa" K.r.X. . . . IIp6? raura 8e tov 'Aorvdynv
eljrclv, K.r.X. . . . Kai tov Kvpov elne'iv, K.r.X. Xen. Cyr. I, 3, 5
and 6. (Here all these Infinitives, and twelve others which follow,
depend on Xeyerai in § 4.) Kai rbv KeXeOaai 8ovvai, and he com-
manded him to give it. Id. I, 3, 9. So in Hdt. I, 24 the story of
Arion and the dolphin is told in this construction, the Infinitives
all depending on a single Xeyovo-t at the beginning. See § 101,
Remark.

§ 106. UpLv, before, before that, until, besides tak-
ing the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative, like ea>s
(§ 6Q~), is also followed by the Infinitive.

For the use of the finite moods after npiv, see § 67.

1. In Homer the Infinitive follows rrpiv after both
affirmative and negative sentences. E. g.

Nale 8e TIi]8aiov np\v eXdelv vlas 'AvattSv. II. XIH, 172. "E(p6ij
ope^dpevos np\v ovraaat, ovd' dcpdpapTev. II. XVI, 322. 2<£auj<
8e irp'iv rrep rpopos eWafie (pal8ipa yvla, irp\v noXepov t 18 in*
iroXipoio re pepptpa epya, before they saw the war, &c. II. VIII, 452.
(See Note 4.) 4>evyei trpiv irep opiXov doXXicrdr) pevai av8pu>v.
II. XV, 588. *H k* ert jroXXol yalav 68ai- elXov trplv "ikiov elo-a(pi-
Kto-dat. H. XXII, 17. 'AXXd ol aura) Zeis oXeVfte (5invrrp\v rjplv nr)pa
CpvTevo-ai. Od. IV, 668. A'iff aXpeXX' . . . aXXoff o\e<r6ai irpiv iXdelv.
Od. XVIII, 402. Ov Xtj£&> ivp\v Tpcoas a8rjv eXaaai iroXe'poio. 11.
XIX, 423. Ov8e ti Bvpco Tepnero irp\v noXepov aropa Bvpevai
alpoToevros- H. XIX, 313. Oii8' dnoXrjyei nplv xpoos dv8pcp.eoio
Hi'.Xdelv. II. XX, 100. Ov p.' dnorptyeis irp\v xoXko) paxeca-

5 106, 2.] INFINITIVE AFTER Uplv. 211

trdai. U. XX, 257. MijS' avrios urratr ipeio nplv ti kokov naBetiv.
II. XX, 198.

See§ 67, Note 1.

2. Writers later than Homer use the Infinitive after
irplv chiefly when the leading sentence is affirmative.
E.g.

Uplv av n ape t va t iKelvov is tt)v 'Attiktjv, vpeus tempos e'ori npo-
$<s>6r\o-ai is ttjv Botoorlav, before he comes into Attica, &c. Hdt. VIII,
143. Olov evpev recraapaKovra Kal oktw napBevoiai, nplv peo-ov apap
iXelv, o)KVTarou ydpov. PlND. Pyth. IX, 196. IIplv vvv ra nXelov
lo-Topeiv, in Tijak edpas 'i£eX6e, before seeking further, &c Soph. O.
C. 36. 'Anonipnovaiv ovv avrov nplv aKoicrai. Thuc II, 1*2. So
II, 13, nplv io-fia\elv fls tt)v ' Attiktjv. 'A<pieo~av Ta j3e\r] noXv irplv
egiKvetardai. Xen. Cyr. Ill, 3, 60. Uplv pev ovv ex^flai to,
ixKpa ovdev ibelade elpr)vT]S. lb. Ill, 2, 12. 'Yipels toivvv Meaa-fjVTjv
elXope> nplv Hipaas Xafielv tt)v fiaartXelav Kal Kparfjaat tt)s
i)neipov, Kal nplv olKto-drjvai Tivas tcov noXeatv tu>v 'EXXtjviSw.
ISOC. Archid. p. 121 A. § 26. Kai nplv etj pfjvas yeyovevat, dne-
Saxce. PLAT. Prot. 320 A. 'AnoXopeo-d' lip , el KaKov npocroio-optv
viov naXaica, nplv roS' i ^tjvtXt] Kevai, we are ruined then, if we shall
add a new calamity to the former one, before we shall have exhausted
that. Eur. Med. 79. (See § 18, 3.)

Note 1. The Infinitive after nplv was probably not accompa
nied by av. (See Kriiger's note on Hdt. I, 140.)

Note 2. Uplv with the Infinitive after negative sentences is rare
in the Attic poets, but more frequent in the Attic prose. (See
§ 67, Note 2.) E. g.

Ovk av pedelro, nplv Ka6% r)hovr)v KXveiv. Soph. Tr.^197. nplv
ISelv 8', ovbels pdvTis to>v peXXovrcov, o ri npdf-ei. Id. Aj. 1418. So
Aesch. Sept. 1048, Agam. 1067 ; Arist. Av. 964. Kal Si' ovto ol>
nplv ndo~xflvi "^' «r€i8ij iv ra) epyco iapev, tovs £vppd\ovs Tovade
napeKaXiaare. Thuc. I, 68. ^ So I, 39 ; V, 10; VII, 50. OvSe^ydp
tovtoiv nplv pa 6 el v ovdels fjnio-TaTo. Xen. Cyr. I\ , 3, 10. Avttj tj
yvvr), nplv pev ios "A<f>o^ov iXBelv, plav i)pipav ovk i\f)pevcrev. Dem.
Onet. I, 873, 10.

Note 3. Uplv fj, nporepov fj (priusquam), npoo~6ev fj, and
even Za-repov fj, like nplv, may be followed by the Infinitive. (See
§ 67, Note 3.) E. g.

Ot 8e Alyvnrioi, nplv pev rj "^appiTi^ov o~(pea>v fZacriXevo-ai,
ivopi£ov eojuToiis npiorovs yeveadai ndvTcov dv6pa>na>v. Hdt. II, 2.
'Enl tovs nopneas n pore pov fj al ade adai avrovs evBvs e^wprjaiv,
before they perceived them. Thuc. VI, 58. So I, 69. Ilplv de dva-
or^vai, ereaiv van pov tKarbv fj avrovs o I k fj cr a i , IldppiXov nepy^av-
res is 2eXivovvra, i. e. a hundred years after their own settlement Id.
VI, 4.

212 THE INFINITIVE. [§ 106, 2.

In Hdt. VT, 108 we find the Infinitive depending on <p6dv<o tj, the
verb implying Trportpop or jrpiv : — (f> 8 a it) re av (gav8pcmo8io-8evT€s r)
viva itvBtaQai r)peav, you would be reduced to slavery before any of us
would hear of it.

Note 4. Uplv or np\v i) is very often preceded by irporepov,
irpoadev, rrdpos, or another irpiv (used as an adverb), qualify-
ing the leading verb. (See § 67, Note 4.) E. g.

ATroOvrjCTKOvat n porepov irpiv hrjkoi yiyvecrdai olot rjcrav. Xen.
Cyr. V, 2, 9. Kai a>po<rav pi) irp\v ey QaJKuiav tjt-etv irpiv r) rbv pv-
8pov tovtov dvairtcprjvevai. Hdt. I, 165. Ildpos 8' ovk eo-<rerat aXXcaj,
irpiv ye ... via irtipr)6rjvai. II. V, 220. Mij irpiv Tapaggs, irpiv rod
(v Oeadai, renvov. Eur. Here. F. 605.

Note 5. Hdpos, in the sense of irpiv, is used in Homer with
the Infinitive, but never with the other moods. E. g.

TeKVO dyporat ef-ciXovro irdpos irercnva yeve<r6ai. Od. XVI,
218. Ov8e ol virvos irlirrev iirl /3X«d>apoicri irdpos xaraXefat airav
ra. Od. XXHI, 309.

Remark. The rules for the tenses of the Infinitive are
given in Chapter Second. It will be seen from a comparison
of these, that the Present and Aorist are the only tenses ordi-
narily used in constructions in which the Infinitive in itself
has no reference to time, that is, in all except indirect dis-
course. In indirect discourse each tense has its own force, as
in the Indicative ; but in other constructions the Perfect is
used only in the cases mentioned in § 18, 3, b, and Note ; and
the Future only in the few cases mentioned in § 27, Note 2, a
and b. (See § 27, Note 1.)

$ 108, 2.J THE PARTICIPLE. 213

CHAPTER VI.

THE PAKTICIPLE.

§ 107. The Participle has three distinct uses: —
first, it may express a simple attribute, like an ordinary
adjective (§ 108) ; secondly, it may define the circum-
stances under which the action of the sentence takes
place (§§ 109-111) ; thirdly, it may form part of the
predicate with certain verbs, often having a force re-
sembling that of the Infinitive (§§ 112, 113).

Remark. As the Infinitive may be considered as a verbal noun,
so the Participle is always a verbal adjective ; both alike retaining
all the attributes of a verb which are consistent with their nature.
See § 90.

§ 108. 1. The Participle, like any other adjective,
may qualify a noun.

In such expressions it must often be translated by a
finite verb and a relative, especially when the Participle
is preceded by the article. E. g.

IIoAij KaKkei 8ia<pe povaa, a city excelling in beauty. 'Avrjp kcl-
\g>s neiraidev pevos, a man who has been well educated. Ol rrpk-
afteis ol napa $t\t7nrov ne pcpBevres, the ambassadors who had been
sent from Philip. "AvSpes ol tovto iroirjo-ovres, men who will do this.

'Ev ttj Meo~o-T]via nore ovo-tj yrj, in the land ivlrich was once Ales-
senia. See § 16,2. SrpaTfvovo-iv «r« ras AloXov vrjaovs KaXov pe vas ,
they sail against the so-called Aeolian islands, lit. the islands called
those of Aeolus. Thuc. Ill, 88. At apiarai doKovaai clvai <pv<reis,
the natures t'hich seem to be best. Xen. Mem. IV, 1, 3. At irpb rov
VToparos vrjes vavpaxovcrai. Thuc VII, 23. Tov KareiXncpora
Kivbwov tt)v noKiv. Dem. Cor. 301, 28.

2. The Participle preceded by the article may be
used substantively, like any other adjective. It is then
equivalent to e«e«>o? o? (he who) and a finite verb in
the tense of the Participle. E. g.

214 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ 108.

Of Kparovvres, the conquerors. Of wentio-pevoi, those nho have bee'
convinced. Ovros e'ori 6 tovto iroir) eras, this is the one who did it.
Ovroi efo-ii/ of t//ias navras ad ikt) o-ovre s , these are the men who will
wrong you all.

Uapa to'is dpio-Tois 8okovo-iv e'vat, among those who seem to be best
XeN. Mem. IV, 2, 6. *Hi> Se 6 pev tt)v yva>p.r]v ravrnv tlnmv Tleicrav
bpos, and Peisander was the one who gave this opinion. Thuc. VIII,
68. Tols 'ApKaScov o-cpertpois ovcri %vppd)(ois npoelnov, they pro-
claimed to those of the Arcadians who were their allies. Id. V, 64.
hfaKTeov e'ya) (prjpt eiwu (rourcoi/) ra craxppove iv 8 v v r) <r o p. i v a> , for
one who is to be able to be discreet. Xen. Syrap. IV, 26.

Note 1. "When the Participle, in either of these construc-
tions, refers to a purpose or intention, it is generally Future,
rarely Present. E. g.

N6p.ov 8r)p.o<riq tov raiira KaXio-ovra rtdeivrai tovtovi, they have
publicly enacted this law, which is to prevent these things. Dem. Mid.
530, 10. Ttov e pyao-op.eva>v tv&nrav, there being men in the country
to cultivate it. Xen. An. II, 4, 22. (See § 110, 1.) 'O r)yr}o-6-
p.evos ouoVty coral there will be nobody who will lead us. lb. II, 4, 5.
IloWovs et-opev tovs iroifuos <Tvvay<ovi^op.€vovs Tjp.lv. Isoc. Pac.
p. 186 D. § 139.

See the more common use of the Future Participle to express a
purpose, § 109, 5.

Note 2. Participles, like adjectives, are occasionally used
substantively even without the article, in an indefinite sense ;
but generally only in the plural. E. g.

*E7rXet ScoSeKa rpir)peis (xa>v ^nl woAAas vavs Kf kttj ptvovs , he
sailed ivilh twelve triremes against men who had many ships. Xen.
Hell. V, 1, 19. "Orav iroXe povvrvv noXis aA<5, whenever a city oj
belligerents is taken. Id. Cyr. VII, 5, 73. Me-ra raiira dcpucvovvTai
pot dirayyeWovres on 6 narTjp dcpe'irai, there come messengers
announcing, &c. Isoc. Trapez. p. 360 C § 11. Ei'Ses vovv e^ovra
Xvnovpevov Kal xaipovra ; did you ever see a man of sense (sc. rivd)
grieved and rejoicing f Plat. Gorg. 498 A.

Note 3. In the poets, the Participle with the article sometimes
becomes so completely a substantive, that it is followed by an ad-
nominal genitive rather than by the case which its verbal force
would require. A few expressions like of TrpocrrjKovTes, relatives, and
to avu(pepov or ra o-vpfopovra, gain, advantage, are used in the s?.me
way even in prose. E. g.

'O eVet'i/ou rtKoiv, his father. Eur. El. 335. (We should expect
6 ik(*lvov rcKUiv.) Td pucpa. (TV pepepovra tt)s noXeios, the small ad-
vantages of the state. Dem. Cor. 234, 26. Baor\c'a>? Trpoa-rjKovTet
nv€s. Thuc. I, 128.

8 108.] PARTICIPLE AS ADJECTIVE. 215

Note 4. (a.) In the poets and in Thucydides, the neuter singu-
lar of the Present Participle with the article is sometimes used in
the sense of an abstract verbal noun, where we should expect the
Infinitive with the article. E. g.

'Ev ra fir) fjLe\tTa>vTi d^vverdiTepoi eaovrai, in the leant of practice,
&c. Thuc. I, 142. (Here we should expect iv ro fir) peXerdv.)
rVcoTco to fiiv berths aiiroii tovs evavriovs fidXXov (pofirjo'ov, to be
Oapcrovv .... ricWo-repoi' (crofievov. Id. I, 36. (Here to SfSids,
fear, is used like to SeSieVai, and to dapvovv, courage, like to Bapativ
or to ddpcros.) Mera tov Spwfievov , with action. Id. V, 102. Kal
ere y eicra£a> ■ to yap vocrovv nodel ere ^vpirapao-TctT-qv Xafifiv.
oOPH. Phd. 674. (to voo~ovv=f] rocros.) To yap irodovv tKatrros
(Kfiadeiv deXcov ol>k av uedeiTO. np\v Kad* rjdovnv kXvciv. Soph. Trach.
196.

Compare the use of the neuter singular of an adjective for the
corresponding abstract noun ; as to KaXoV, beauty, for to KaXXos.

(6.) A similar construction sometimes occurs when a Participle
and a noun are used instead of an Infinitive and a noun, where in
English we generally use a finite verb. E. g.

Mera 8e SdAcofa ol)(6 fievov e'Xa/3e veuea-is fitydXrj Kpoio~ov, i. e.
after Solon was gone. Hdt. I, 34. Tj; irdXei oi/Ve woXefiov kokws
avfiftavTos oi/Ve crrdcrfcos nomoTe ai'rtoy e'yeVero, i. e. the cause of a
disastrous result of any war (like tov noXefiov Tiva kqkws o~vfi($r)vat.).
Xen. Mem. I, 2,*63. So is rjfXiov KaraSwra, D. I, 601.

Remark. Such expressions as to KpaTovv tt/j noXeas, the ruling
part of the state, to 8ogd{ov tt)s ^vxi^, &c. must not be confounded
with the examples belonging under Notes 3 and 4. They are
merely cases of the partitive genitive after a participle used as a
noun.

Note 5. Some Present Participles are occasionally used like
predicate adjectives after elfti or ylyvopai. Such are especially bia-
(ptpau, excov (with an adverb), Trpoo-fjKa>v, irptncov, 8iov, i£6u, and
o~vfi(pepov. E. g.

Ti iroT eo-Tiv ovtos i<eivov fiiacpe pav; in what is this man different
from that one? Plat. Gorp\ 500 C. 2vfiq>e pov r)v tj} 7r6Xei, it was
advantageous to the state. Deri. F. L. 364, 25. So after virdpxon in
Demosthenes ; as tovto fikv yap vndpx*iv ifids elBoTas r)yovp,ai,for I
think you are aware of this, Cor. 257, 25.

Note 6. The poets sometimes use a Present or Aorist Parti-
ciple with elfil as a periphrasis for the simple form of the verb In
prose each part of such expressions has its ordinary meaning. E. g.

*Ai> rj 6eXovo-a, irdvr efiov Kopi^eTai, whatever she wants, she
ahoays obtains from me. Soph. O. T. 580. (Here 17 #eXouo-a is used
for deXw.) Ovk ds oXeBpov; oi o~ia>Tfr)o-as eeret; lb. 1146. IJ
rovro ovk ecrri ytyvofievov -nap rjfiip ; or is not this something that

216 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ 106.

happens among us? Plat. Phileb. 39 C. *Hv yap 6 Qepio-roKkrjs
/3e/3aiorara brj (pvaecas icr^i/i/ Sf/Xoxraj, Kai . ■ . ci£ios Gavpdaai,
Themistocles was one who manifested, &c. Thuc. I, 138.

For the use of the Perfect Participle in the same way, see § 1 7,
Note 2. For the Aorist Participle with t^co as a periphrasis for the
Perfect Indicative, see below, § 112, Note 7.

§ 109. The Participle is used to define the circum-
stances under which an action takes place. It may in
this sense be connected with any substantive in the
sentence, and agree with it in case.

The relations expressed by the participle in this use
are the following : —

*&

1. Time, the various tenses of the Participle denoting
various points of time, which are of course all referred
to that of the leading verb. E. g.

Tavra elirvv dnrjei, when he had said this, he departed. 'Anrjvrno-a
4>i\i7r7r<» an i our i, I met Philip as he was departing. Tovro it e it o 1 n -
kotc s drreXevcrovTai. Tavra eirparre ar parny £>v , he did these things
while he was general. Tavra Trpdi-ei a-rparnyav, he will do these
things when he is general. Tv pavvev o~as Se errj rpia 'lmrlas e^wpet
vnoo-TTovbos £s 2fy«ov. Thuc. VI. 59.

2. Means. E. g.

Ani^opevoi £a)o-iv, they live by plunder. Xen\ Cyr. HI, 2, 25.
Tovs "EXXnvas £bi8a£ai>, ov rpoirov 8i o t Kovvres rds avraiv Tvarpibas
Kal npos ovs 7roX e pov vr e s peydXrjv av rf)v EXXaSa noinaeiav. ISOC.
Panath. p. 241 D. § 44. Ov yap dXXorpiots vplv vpa> pepois irapa-
bdypao-iv aXX' oiKtims. tvbalpoaiv et-eo-ri yevecrdai, by using not foreign
but domestic examples, &c. Dem. 01. Ill, 35, 1. (So often -^pcopevos
with the dative.)

3. Manner, and similar relations, including manner
of employment, &c. E.g.

IIpoeiXeTO pdWov TOiy vopois £ p p e v o> v dnodavelv n tt a pavo pa>v
£i)v, he preferred to die abiding by the laws, rather than to live disobey-
ing them. Xen. Mem. IV, 4,4. 'Ap?ro(rai'Taf to. oirXa iropeve-
o-dai, to march having snatched up their arms (i. e. eagerly). Dem. 01.
Ill, 34, 8. Tovro hiroino-ev Xadvv, he did this secretly. (See below,
N. 8.) 'Anebrjpei r pinpapx&v, he was absent on duty as trierarch.

4. Cause or around of action. E. g.

§ 10 3, 7.J PARTICIPLE EXPRESSING CAUSE, ETC. 217

A/ya) 8( rovby eveica, ftov\6 pevos 86%ai <to\ oirtp ep.oi, and 1
speak for this reason, because I ivish, &c. Plat. Phaed. 102 D.
'\nel\ovro KepScov, alaxpd voui^ovres elvai, because they believed
them to be base. ^ Xen. Mem. I, 2, 22. Tf yap hv ^ovXdaevoi
aVSpes' cro(pol u>s aXrjdcos Bfanoras dpeivovs axirmv (pevyoiev, with what
object in view, &c. (i. e. wishing what) ? Plat. Phaed. 63 A. (See
below, Note 7.)

For the Participle with cos, used to express a cause assigned by
another, see below, Note 4.

5. Purpose, object, or intention, expressed by the Fu-
ture Participle, rarely by the Present. E. g.

H\6e \vaopevos dvyarpa, he came to ransom hi* daughter. H.
I. 13. Ilape\r)\vda av ufiovXevaav , I have risen to give my advice.
Isoc. Archid. § 1. 'EfiovXtvo-auro neuneiv es Aa<e8aipova irpto-jSeis
ravra re e povvras /cat Avaavdpov alrtjo-ovras enl ras vavs, in
order to say this, and to ask for Lysander as admiral. Xen. Hell. II,
1, 6. Eav els noXeuov (r) narpls) ayn r pad r] <ro p.evov fj airoda-
vovuevov, iroinreov ravra, even if it lead any one into war to be
wounded or to perish. Plat. Crit. 51 B.

Erv)(ov yap al p.ev (vrjes) em Kapias olxduevat, . . . weptayyeX-
Xovaai jdoTjdelv, for some of the ships happened to be gone towards
Caria, in order to give them notice to send aid. Thuc. I, 116. So
dpvv/xevot, II. I, 159. (The Present here seems to express an attend-
ant circumstance, rather than a mere purpose.)

6. Condition, the Participle standing for the protasis
of a conditional sentence, and its tenses representing
the various forms of protasis expressed by the Indica-
tive, Subjunctive, or Optative (§ 52, 1). E. g.

Oiei crv AXktjcttlv vrrep Adpijrov aTrodavelv av, jj 'A^tXXea LTarpo/cAa)
enairoBavelv, p.f] olop.evovs dOdvarov fxvrjprjv dperfjs Trtpi eavraiv
ea-eadai, do you think that Alcestis would have died for Ad met us, $'c,
if they had not believed, &c. Plat. Symp. 208 D. (Here pfj oloue-
vovs is equivalent to el pfj (Zovro.) Ov yap av avrols i'peXev p.ri rovro
i>iroXap.fidvovcriv, for it would not have concerned them, unless
they had had this idea. Dem. Phil. IH, 122, 21. (Here ar] vTroXap.-
fidvovaiv is equivalent to el at) rovro vneXd/ji^avov.) * Avrpoiv av
tXQoip. aWe'pos irpbs dvroXas /cat yrjs evepOe, dvvaros as v Spacrai. rdbe,
\j I should be able to do this (el bvvaros e'inv). Eur. Phoen. 504.

See other examples under § 52, 1.

7. Opposition, or limitation, where the Participle is
often to be translated by although. E. g.

Oiros 8e koi p.eranep.(pdTjvai <pd<TKG>v into rov itarpbs, /cci tX6o)»
10

218 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ 109, 7

els rrjv oiKiav, elcreXOelv piv oi (prjo-iv, Ar]p.o(pa>vTOS 8' aKOvaai ypapptf
reiov dvayiyvuxjKovTos, Kal Trpaeio-eXnXvBuis koi nrravra Stw/xcXo-
ynpevos Trpos tqv irarepa, and this man, although he admits that he
was summoned, and although he did go to the house, yet denies thai he
went in, fyc, although he had previously gone in and arrtfiged every-
thing with my father. Dem. Aph. II, 839, 29. 'OXiya 8vvdpevot
irpoopav 7repi tov peXXovTos TroXXa iirixelP0Vriev Trparreiv, although we
are able to foresee few things, &c. Xen. Cyr. Ill, 2, 15.

The Participle in this sense is very often accompanied by Ka'nrrp
and other particles. See below, Note 5.

8. Any attendant circumstance, the Participle being
merely descriptive. E. g.

Kai 7rapaXa/3oires tovs Boiarrou? earpdrfva-av eiri <f>dpcraX<iv, and
having taken the Boeotians with them, they marched against Pharsalus.
ThUC I, 111. YlapayyeXXti ru> KXeap^a) Xa/36iri rjiceiv ocrov nv
a\)TG> arrpdrevpa. Xkn. An. I, 2, 1. Ep^rrai Mavddvr] rov Kvpov tov
viov exov&a, Mundane comes with her son Cyrus. Id. Cyr. I, 3, 1.
(See below, N. 8.)

Note 1. (a.) The adverbs Tore, ff8r) (tot( 787;), ivravda, (tra,
tiretra, and cruras are often joined to the verb of the sentence in
which the temporal Participle stands. E. g.

'EiciXevev avrov crvv8iafidvTa enfira ovtcos aTraXXaTTfadai, he com-
manded that, after he had joined them in crossing, he should then retire
as he proposed. Xkn. An. VII, 1, 2. Heidopevoav 8e ra>v 2a/xuoi> km
o~XOVT(ov tt]v ZdyKX-qv, evBaiira oi Zay<Xaioi ifiorjdeov avrfj. Hdt.
VI, 23. ' Anoipvyav 8e Ka\ tovtovs, arparnyos ovra> 'A&nvaiaiv
dirfdexfy' anc^ ^avm9 escaped these also, he was then chosen general
of the Athenians. Id. VI, 104.

(&.) Eira, (Treira, and ovras sometimes refer in the same way to a
Participle expressing opposition or limitation ; in which case they
may be translated by nevertheless, after all. E. g.

Udvratv 8' droTrcorardi' tort, TrjXiKavTnv dveXovras uaprvpiav
out as o'Uadai 8dv tiKj} nioreveadai nap' vp.1v, that, although they
have destroyed so important a piece of evidence, they after all think,
&c. Dem. Aph. II, 837, 10. Aeiva ptvr av irdQois, el 'Adrjva(e
dcpiKopfvos, ov ttjs 'EXXciSos irXeia-Tn e'arlu i^ovcria rov Xf'-yfic,
t it (it a ov evravda tovtov pdvos drvxrjo-ais, if, although you are come
to Athens, you should, after all be the only one to fail in obtaining this.
Plat. Gorg. 461 E.

(c.) Ovtods. 81a tovto, and 8t,a ravra sometimes refer in the same
way to a Participle denoting a cause. E. g.

No p. if av dpe'wovas kol xpe'iTTovs iroXXcov jSap/Sapcav vpas €ivait
8 1 a rov to npoaiXafiov. Xkn. An. I, 7, 3.

109.] THE PARTICIPLE. 219

Ncmc 2. The Adverbs ap.a, pera^v, evdvs, avriKci, and e£al<pvr\i
are often connected (in position and in sense) with the temporal
Participle, although grammatically they qualify the verb of the sen •
tence. E. g.

A p a npoicov iTrfCTKOireiro ei rt dvvarov e'lt] tovs iroXepiovs dadeveo-re-
povs noielv, as he advanced, he looked at the same time to see whether it
was possible, &c Xen. Cyr. V, 2, 22. "Apa KciTaXafiovTes irpoo-eKearo
<r(pi, as soon as they had overtaken them, they pressed hard upon them,
Hdt. IX, 57. NeKcd? pera^v opvacrtov enavaaro, pavrrjl w sllttoSiov
yevopevov, Necho stopped while digging (the canal), &c. fd. II, 158
IIoAAa^oi; 8i] pe (Triage Xeyovra p,era£v, it often checked me while
speaking. Plat. Apol. 40 B. 'Ettittovco do-Ki'jcrei evdvs vloi ovres to
dv8pelov peTepxpvrai, by toilsome discipline, even while they are still
young, &c Thuc II, 39. Ta> 8etjicp Ktpq evdvs dirojie^nKOTL oi Ko-
ptvdwi ineKeivro, the Corinthians pressed upon the right wing, as soon
as it was disembarked. Id. IV, 43. 'Aptjdpevos evdvs KaOio-raptvov,
beginning as soon as it (the ivar) broke out. Id. I, 1. Atowaov Xe'yov
<rt cos avriKa yevopevov is tov pnpbv eveppd^aro Zeds, they say of
Dio?iysus that, as soon as he was born, Zeus sewed him into his thigh.
Hdt. II, 146. Tr/v ^v^i)v Qecopcov e^aifpvrjs dnodavovros (Kdcrrov,
viewing the soul of each one the moment that he is dead. Plat. Gorg.
523 E.

Note 3. (a.) 'Art, olov, or ola, as, inasmuch as, are used
to emphasize a Participle denoting the cause or ground of an
action. Here the cause assigned is stated merely on the au-
thority of the speaker or writer. (See N. 4.) E. g.

O 8e Kvpos, are irais cov /cat (piXoKaXos Kal (pikoripos, rjdero rjj
(TTo\rj., but Cyrus, inasmuch as he was a child, &c. Xen. Cyr. I, 3, 3.
So are \n(p8tvTcov, TllUC. VH, 85. MciAa 8e ^aXencos iropevopevoi,
oia 8r/ iv wkti re /cat <p6[Bco air iovt e s , els Alydadeva dfpiKvovvrai,
inasmuch as they were departing by night, &c. Xen. Hell. VI, 4, 26.
In Herodotus coo-re is used in the same sense; as in I, 8, coare
■avra vop.'i£cov, inasmuch as he believed this. See Thuc. VH, 24.

(b.) "Sltrirep with the Participle occasionally seems to have the
same force as are or olov ; as in Eur. Hippol. 1307, 6 8' coenrep u-,»
8.Kaios ovk e<petmeTo Xoyois, inasmuch as he was just, &c.

For the common use of coanep with the Participle, see Note y.

Note 4. (a) 'flt may be prefixed to many of the Parti-
ciples of § 109, especially those denoting a cause or a pur-
pose. It shows that the Participle expresses the idea of the
subject of the leading verb, or that of some other person promi-
nently mentioned in the sentence ; without implying that it is
also the idea of the speaker or writer. E. g.

220 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ 109.

To* TlepiKke'a ev atria efyoi> us Tveicravra o~(pdi noXepelv ko\ &C
inelvov rais gvp(popais tre piir eirra kot es , they found fault with
Pericles, on the ground that he had persuaded them to engage in the
war, a: id that through him they had met with the calamities. Thuc.
II. 59. (Here Thucydides himself is not responsible for the state-
ments made by the Participles ; as he would be if i>s we-° omitted.)
See § 111. AyavaKTOvo-iv coi peydXcov tivojv direcrTeprjpivcK '.hey are
indignant, because (as they allege) they have been deprived, &c. Plat.
Rep. I, 32!) A. BcnjiXfi ^dpii* icrao-iv, ais Si' iiceivov rvx^vcrai rtjs
avrovopias ravrns, i. e. they thank him because (as they believe) the!)
have obtained this independence through him. Isoc. Pan. p. 77 C.
§ 175. Oi pev biwKovTfS rovs ko6)' avrovs a> s ndvras vlkwvt e s , oiS
dpird^ovres is 17817 navres vncavres, one side pursuing those opposed
to them, thinking that they were victorious over all : and the other side
proceeding to plunder, thinking that they were all victorious. Xen. An.
I, 10,4. Ttjv npocpaatv erroieiro u> s Tliaibas /3 0 v X 0 p e v o s e KJHaXelv,
he made his pretence, (apparently) wishing to drive out the Pisidians.
lb. I, 2, 1. "EXeye Oappeiv us KaTaarnaopevav tovtcov els to
8eov, he said he took courage, on the ground that these matters were
about to be settled, &c. lb. I, 3, 8. (See § 110, 1, N. 1.) 'fls yap
fi86ra>v nepl hv eirep(pdr]o-av aKovere, for you hear them as men who
(as you believe) know about ivhat they were sent for. Dem. F. L. 342,
25. Oi 'Adrjvaioi napeo-Kevd^ovTo as TroXe pi] aovre s , the Athenians
prepared with the (avowed) intention of going to war. Thuc. II, 7.
"2,v\\ap$avei Kvpov iis diroKTevajv , he seizes Cyrus loilh the (avowed)
object of putting him to death. Xen. An. I, 1, 3.

It is a common mistake to suppose that a>s implies that the Parti-
ciple does not express the idea of the speaker or writer. It implies
nothing whatever on this point, which is determined (if at all) by the
context.

(b.) 'Q,s may also be used before Participles with verbs of know-
ing, &c, included in § 113. (See § 113, N. 10.)

Note 5. (a.) The Participle expressing opposition or limitation
is often strengthened by Kaiirep or nai (after a negative, by ov&e or
p,r)8f, with or without nep), ica\ ravra, and that^ too. "Opcos, neverthe-
less, may be connected with the Participle (like dpa, &c. N. 2), be-
longing, however, grammatically to the leading verb. E. g.

"EKTopa Kdi pe paara pax*)? o-xweadai oico. II. IX, 655. Ettoi-
KTeipco 8e viv bvo-rnvov epnas, na'nrep ovra dvapevrj, although he IS
my enemy. Soph. Aj. 122. Ovk av Trpo$oir]v, ov8e nep -npdao-wv
Kancos. Euk. Phoen. 1624. TvvaiKi ireidov, pr]8i TaXrjdi] kXvcou.
Id. Hipp. Fr. 443. Ileidov yu«u£i, nainep oi) o-repymv opus-
Aesch. Sept. 712. (Here opa>s qualifies ireidov; although, as usual,
it is joined with the Participle for emphasis.) 'A8i<cels on av8pa
rjpif tov o-novbaioTarov 8i.a(pdeipeis -yeXai/ dvaireidav, Ka\ ravra ovtoi
voXepiov ovra t<u yeXcori.. Xen. Cyr. II, 2, 16.

(h.) In Homer, the two parts of icai . . nep are generally sepa-

3 109.] THE PARTICIPLE. 221

rated by tho Parti:iple, or by some emphatic word connected with
it. Kai is here very often omitted, so that nip stands alone in the
sense of although.

Both of these uses are found also in the Al tic poets. E. g.

Tov pev enetr e'iaae, <a\ d\vvfxe vos nep ei dipov, Ke'taBai. U. VIII,
125. Kai Kparepos nep eu>v, pevtrat rpiTdrij evt poipjj. II. XV, 195.
Terkadi, pr)rep eprj, Kai dvacr^eo Krj8opevn uep, pi) ere cpiXrju nep
eovcrav iv 6(pdaXpoicnv iSojpat Betvopevrp/ • rore 8' ov ti dvvrjcropai
axyvpevos nep xpaicrpe'iv. R I» 586.

Kdyco cr' tKvovpai, Kai yvvrj nep ova 'Spas- Eur. Orest. 680.
Td<pov yap avrfj ko\ KaraaKafpds eya>, yvvrj nep ovo~a, ra>8e prj^avrj<ro-
pai. Aesch. Sept. 1037.

Remark. Kairot was very seldom used like Kainep with the Par-
ticiple, its only regular use being with finite verbs. E. g.

Ovde poi eppeXeoas to HiTTaKiiov veparat, Kalroi crocpov napd
(pcoros elpnpevov. Simon. Fr. 5 (apud Plat. Prot. 339 C).

Note 6. The Participle a>v is sometimes omitted after the parti-
cles mentioned in the last three notes, leaving an adjective or a
noun standing by itself. E. g.

Avtovs eis tt)v noXireiav ov napahel-opeda, are rvpavvibos vpvrjrds
(sc. ovras)- Plat. Rep VIII, 568 B. Avt6 eniTrj8evovo-tv ass dvay-
Kaiov dXX ovx &>s dyaObv (sc. 6V), they practise it on the ground that it
is necessary, and not on the ground thaf it is a good thing. R>. II, 358
C. H pf]i> en Zeis, Kainep avddSns (p^evdiv. ?crrai raneivos- Aesch.
Prom. 907.

Note 7. (a.) The Participle with any of the meanings included
in § 109 may stand in relative or interrogative clauses. Such ex-
pressions can seldom be translated literally into English. E. g.

Ti be Ka\ 8 e Stores cr<p68pa ovras e'nelyea&e ; what do you fear,
that you are in such great haste f Xen. Hell. I, 7, 26. Ti av elna>v
at tis opdeos npoo-einoi ; what could one call yovh so as to give you the
right name f Dem. Cor. 232, 20. Tan/ vopatv dneipoi yiyvovrai Ka't
tcov X6y<av, ois del XP<° P^"ov opiXelv rois dvOpcanots, which one must
use in his intercourse with men. Plat. Gorg. 484 D.

(b.) Here belong ri paBdiv ; and ri na6u>v ; both of which hav«
the general force of wherefore f T i p a B w v to-~to notel ; however^
usually signifies what put it into his head to do this ? or with what idea
does he do this? and ri naButv tovto noiei; wnat his happened to him
that he does this ? E. g.

Ti tovto paBav npoaeypatyev ; with what idea dkl he add this to
the law? 1)em. Lept. 495, 20. Ti naBovaai, e'inep Nf6e'Xcu y
tlaiv dXrjBcbs, dvrjrais e'i^acn ywait-iv ; what has happened to them that
they resemble mortal women? Arist. Nub. 340.

These phrases may be used even in dependent sentences, ri be-
coming o ti, and the whole phrase meaning because.. E. g.

222 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ 109.

Tt d£ios e\pi nadelv fj dnoTlarai, on padaiv fVra j3ia> ou^ fjcru^iav
riyov ; what do I deserve to suffer, Sfc. for not keeping quiet f i. e. for
the idea which came into my head, in consequence of wh ich I did not
keep quiet. Plat. Apol. 36 B. So Plat. Euthyd. 283 E, and 299
A. (See Matthiae, § 567.)

Note 8. Certain Participles, when they agree with the subject
of a verb, have almost the force of adverbs. Such are dp^o/xei/or,
at first ; reXevr<»i>, finally ; 8 i a X i n o> v , after an interval ; <pe pa>v ,
hastily ; avvaas, quickly ; \a6iov, secretly ; Karareivas, ear-
nestly ; e^coi/, continually ; <f>d do-as, quickly. (See Passow or Lid-
dell and Scott, under apx<o, &c.)

"E^qjv, ayuv, (pepcov, and Xa/3o>«/ may often be translated
with. (See example under § 109, 8.)

Note 9. "Qo-ntp with the Participle generally belongs
to an implied apodosis, to which the Participle forms the pro-
tasis (§ 109, 6). Here ao-irep means simply as, and the Parti-
ciple 13 translated with an if prefixed. (See § 53, N. 3.)
Kg.

Qo-wep rj8r] o-a<pa>s et Sores, ovk (diXtT aKovfiv, you are unwilling
to hear, as if you already knew well (i. e. as you would be if you
knew). Isoc. Pac. p. 160 C. § 9. (Here el86res = el rj^eire, § 52,
1.) h.itr}vra>v oXi'yo* npos noXkas pvpuibas, oianep iv dXXorpiais
yj/vxcls ueWovres KivSvveveiv, as if they had been about to risk the
lives of others (i. e. 5>o-rrep aTrf]VTo)v av, el i'peWov). Id. Pan. p. 58 B.
§ 86. So lb. p. 78 C. § 179, oSo"7rep npos rbv Ala rrjv ^upau veuo-
p.evos, aXX ov ivpbs tovs dvBpdmovs rds o-wdrjKas Trotovpevos, as
{he would have done) if he had been dividing the country with Zeus,
and not making a treaty ivith men.

That uio-nep means simply as (not as if) is seen when a verb with
ei follows; as in &j-irrp el Xeyois, as if you should say. See also B.
n, 780, iaav, a>s ei re nvp\ \6(i>v ndaa vepoiro, i. e. their march
was as (it would be) if the whole land should be covered with fire.

§ 110. 1. If a Participle, denoting any of the rela-
tions included in § 109, belongs to a substantive which
is not connected with the main construction of the sen-
tence, both the substantive and the Participle are put
in the genitive, called absolute. E. g.

TaCr' iiTpd)(6n Kdvcovos o-TparrjyovvTos, these things were
done ivhen Con on teas general. Isoc. Evag. p. 200 C. § 56. *A<piKero
deiipo to 7rXo(Of, y vd vrtav ra>v K«paXXr)vcov, d vt urpdrr ovt o s tov
rov, ■ ■ ■ naranXe'iv, the Cephallenians having determined to sail in,
aWiough this man opposed it. Dem. Zenoth. 886, 1. (For the tenses

§ 110, 1.") GENITIVE ABSOLUTE. 223

of the Participles, see § 24.) Adnvalcov 8e to avro tovto iraQovrvtv,
8nr\ao~lai> av rfjv 8vvaptv eiKa£eo-8ai (oipai), i. e. if the Athenians
$hould ever suffer, &c. Thuc. I, 10. (See § 52, 1.) "0\ns yap ttjs
rrdXeas en it peno pevqs ra crrpar^ytp, peydXa rd Te ayada narop-
6 oxi vt os avrov Kai to. kukci 8 lapaprdvovros el<6s yiyveaOai.
Xen. Mem. Ill, 1, 3.

Note 1. The Participle in the genitive absolute may be accom-
panied by all the particles mentioned in § 109, Notes 1-9, with the
6ame force as in other constructions. It may also stand in the rela-
tive and interrogative sentences of § 109, N. 7. E. g.

Kai avrov peraf-v ravra Xeydvros 6 KXeivias erv\ev dtroKpivdpe-
vos, while he ivas saying this, &c. Plat. Euthyd. 275 E. 'Ek 8e
tovtcov evOiis eicnpvTTOV e£ievai iravras QrjfBaiovs, a> s tqjv rvpdvuatp
T(6ued>Tcov , because (as they said) the tyrants were dead. Xen.
Hell. V, 4, 9. (See § 109, N. 4.) ' AneXoyfjo-aTo on ovX as rols
'EWnai noXe pnaovrav o~(f>a>v e'liroi, that he said what he did, not
because they intended to be at ivar with the Greeks. Id. An. V, 6, 3.
So a>s e'mftovXevovros Ticraacpepvovs rals TrdXeat, on the ground that T.
was plotting; An. I, 1, 6. 'fis ov it poo-oio-ovros (sc. e'pov) ras
X^pas, . . . 8l8acrKe, since (as you may feel sure) I will not lay hands
oh you, teach me. Id. Mem. II, 6, 32. Kvpos 8e dnoplyo-t evelxero,
are xP°V0V eyy ivopevov crvxvov, inasmuch as along time intervened.
Hdt. I, 190. (See § 109, N. 3.) 'Hi- yap abdvaros, Sxrre anno-
pevov tov prjpov. Id. VI, 136. Ot "TLWnves ovtws riyavdnrnaav,
&o~irep oXrjs rfjs 'EXXdSor Trenopdvpevrjs, as if the whole of Greece had
been devastated (i. e. as they would have been, if it had been devas-
tated). Isoc. Helen, p. 217 D. § 49.

For the genitive absolute after its, in connection with verbs of
knowing, &c, see § 113, Note 10.

Note 2. A Participle sometimes stands alone in the genitive ab-
solute, when a noun or pronoun can easily be supplied from the
context, or when some general word (like d»8pwTra>v, wpaypdrwv) is
understood. E. g.

Oi 8e noXepioi, it poo~tovT<i>v , rems pev rjavxa^ov, but the enemy, as
tuey (men before mentioned) came on, for a time kept qidet. Xen.
An. V, 4, 16. So eirayopevaiv avrovs, Thuc I, 3. Ovrco 8' e'xdv-
rcov, elicbs, k.t.X., and things being so (sc. Trpaypdroov), &c. Xen.
An. Ill, 2, 10. Ovk e^aiTovpevos, ovk ' ApcpiKTvovtKas 8i<as eira-
yovroov, ovk eirayyeXXopevcov, ov8apa>s eya> npoSe&WKa tt)v els
vuas evvoiav. Dem. Cor. 331, 30. (Here dvdpomcov is understood
with eTTayovrav and e'rrayyfXXopevcov.)

So when the Participle denotes a state of the weather ; as vovroi
noXXto, when it was raining heavily. Xen. Hell. I, 1, 16. (In such
cases the Participle is masculine, Aids being understood. See Arist.
Nub. 370, vovra; and II. XII, 25, le 8' apa Zris-)

Note 3. A passive Participle may stacl in the genitive absolute

224 THE PARTICIPLE [§ 110, I.

with a clause introduced by on. If the subject of such a clause ia
plural, the Participle is itself sometimes plural, by a kind of attrac-
tion. E. g.

'Satft&s 87]\a>dei>Tos on iv rais vava\ t<Si> '~EWt}vo>v ra TTpdypara
iyivero, it having been clearly shown, that, &c. Thuc. I, 74. In I,
116 we find iaayyeXdevTayv on $oivio~o-ai vrjes ear ai)Tois ir\tov-
<riv, it having been announced, that, &c.

Note 4. The Participle a>v is rarely omitted, leaving a noun and
an adjective alone in the genitive absolute. E. g.

'Qs ipov p6vr\s ne\as (sc. ovens'). Soph. O. C. 83.

Note 5. The genitive absolute is regularly used only when a
C3W subject is introduced into the sentence (§ 110, 1), and not
when the Participle can be joined with any substantive already be-
longing to the construction. Yet this rule is sometimes violated, in
order to give greater prominence to a participial clause. E. g.

Atafle fit] kotos ^8r/ UepiKXeovs, rjyyeX6r] avrco on Mtyapa d(pea-rrj-

K€. Thuc. I, 114.

2. The Participles of impersonal verbs stand in the
accusative absolute, in the neuter singular, when other
participles would stand in the genitive absolute. Such
are Seov, e^ov, irapov, 7rpoar]Kov, irape^ov, /xeXov, p,era-
fieXov, Sokovv, ho%av, and the like ; also passive Parti-
ciples used impersonally (as -rrpoa-Ta^Oev, eipwp.evov') ;
and such expressions as ahwaTov ov, it being impossible,
composed of an adjective and ov. E. g.

Ot 8' oil /3o7/#i7crai/Tes, 8tov, vyiels dnTJXdov ; and did those who
brought no aid when it was necessary escape safe and sound t Plat.
Alcib. I, 115 B. 'A7rXas 8i Xinras e£6v (sc. (pepeiv), ovk ot'erco
8tirXds- Eur. Iph. Taur. 688. Hape\ov 8e t?]s 'Actios Trdo-rjs ap^eiv
tvneTfais, aWo n alpfjo-(0-8€ ; Hdt. V, 49. EvSe Trapao~)(6v , and
when an opportunity offers. Thuc. I, 120. Ov npoo-fjKov, im-
properly. Id. IV, 95. "2vv86£av tco narp\ <a\ ttj prjrp\, yapd rr)v
Kvatjdpov dvyaripa. Xen. Cyr. VIII, 5, 28. Elprj pevov kiciov
fivai o n av to nXrjdos to>v £vppd\a>v \jsr](pLO~r]Tai. Thuc. V, 30. So
8t8oypevov, I, 125; yeypappivov, V, 56; and 7rpoo~T€Taypivov, Plat.
Leg. X, 902 D. Kal ivdivde TrdXiv, n p o o~Taj(d e v poi vno tov 8rjpov
Mcpawa ayew as 'EXXtjo-ttovtov, to^oprjv. DEM. Polycl. 1210, 5.
Tlap-KfXfvouTo Te, d8vv aTov ov iv vvktI iiXXa> tco arjpijvai. Thuc.
VII, 44. *Eya>y\ e<pr] 6 Kvpos, oipai, apa pev avvayopevovTcov tjpcbv,
apa 8e kol alo~x.pov ov to avriXeyeiv, k.t.X. Xen. Cyr. II, 2, 20.
(The genitive belongs under § 110, 1. See § 111 ) 'AvTinapt-
o~Kfvd£fTo ippapivcos, a>r pax*]* en 8cijo~ov, on the ground that thert

§111] ACCUSATIVE ABSOLUTE. 225

would stiU be need of a battle. lb. VI, 1, 26. (See Remark, below.)
Oi 8e TpiaKOvra, cos e£6v rjdrj auTois Tvpavvelv dSecos, npoe'mov, k. r.X.,
i. e. thinking that it was now in their power, &c. Id. Hell. II, 4,1. *H
•yap voels ddnreiv a(p', and p p-qrov no\et (sc. 6V), when it is forbidden
to the city. Soph. Ant. 44.

Remark. The accusative absolute may take the same particles
as the genitive absolute (§ 110, 1, Note 1). It may also omit the
Participle ov. (See the last two examples, above.)

Note 1. Even the Participles of personal verbs sometimes stand
with their nouns in the accusative absolute, in all genders and num-
bers, if they are preceded by cos (used as in § 109, Note 4), or bv
voire p, as if E. g.

Ato Ka\ tovs vlels oi narepes dno tq>v novqpav avdpanroov eipyovaiv,
cos ttjv pev rav xprjvrcov opiXiav aaKrjoiv ovcrav ttjs aperrjs, rr\v
be tcoj/ novijpwv KaTa.\v(7iv (sc. ovaav). Xen. Mem. I, 2, 20. <f>i'Xous
KTatvrai cos fiorjdcov beopevoi, tuiv 8 dSeXcpcoV dpeXoGcrii', atone p e<
noXiTcov pev y lyvo fie vovs (piXovs, e£ d8e\(pa>v be ov y tyvo pevov s ,
as if friends were made from fellow-citizens, and were not made from
brothers. lb. II, 3, 3. MeytaTov ovrco biane'iadcu. ras yvu>pas vpa>v, cos
enaarov eieovra npodvpoos o ri av bey noirjaovTa. Dem. Sym. 182,
3. (See§ 113, N. 10, c.)

Note 2. The accusative absolute used personally without cos or
&o-nep is very rare. It occurs chiefly with the neuter of Participles
which are regularly impersonal. E. g.

TLpocrr] kov aurco tov Khrjpov pepos oaovnep epoi. ISAE. V, § 12.
Tana be yivopeva, nevdea peyd\a tovs Alyvnriovs KaraXapfidvei.
Hdt. II, 66. *Hbn dpcparepois pev boKoiiv dvax&pe'iv, icvpcodev bi
ovbev , wktos re eniyevopevr/s, oi pev Ma/ce doves ■ . . e\a>povv en oikov
THUC. IV, 125. Ao^ana be ravra km ne pavdevra, ra arpa-
revpara dnrp\Qe. Xen. Hell. HI, 2, 19. Ad£av fjp.lv raira occurs
in Plat. Prot. 314 C, where we may supply noielv.

§111. As the Participle in the genitive (or accusative)

absolute denotes the same relations (time, cause, &c.) as the
Participle in its ordinary construction (§ 109), both may be
used in the same sentence, and be connected by conjunctions.
When several Participles denoting these relations occur in
any sentence, those which belong to substantives already con-
nected with the main construction agree with those substan-
tives in case, while those which refer to some new subject
stand with that subject in the genitive absolute; any which
are impersonal standing in the accusative absolute. E. g.

Oi p.ev"E\\r)ves crrpacpei/Tes napeaK.evd£ovro cos ravrj] npoaiivroi
10* O

226 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ 111.

(sc. roii ^ao•tXea)?) koi S^oficvoi, they prepared themselves urith a
view to his (the King's) coming up and to receiving him. Xe-n. An. I,
10,6. Trjs yap epnupias ovk ovarjs, ov8' en ip ly vv vt es d8eas
dXXr)Xois, ..•vep.6p.evoi re to. eavrcov, . . . d8rjX6v ov Snore tis
eneXOcov Kai arei^io-TOiv apa ovto>v aXXos dcpaiprjaeTai, Trjs re Kad
Tjpepav dvaynaiov rpoCprjs navraxov av r)yov pevoi eiriKpareiv, ov
Xakenas dnavio-TavTO. ThUC. I, 2. Kai ndvra 8 tan pa£dp,e vos ev
TJj eKKXrjcria (KXecov), koi \jsr) (fi iarap.e v a>v ' A6rjvaiu>v avra tov nXovv,
rail' re ev TlvXca o-Tparrtyatv eva n poo~ eX6 p.e vos , rrjv dvaya>yr)v dia
rd%ovs enoieiro. Id. IV, 29. 'AXKiftidSrjs to'is UeXonovvrjaiois vno-
nros a>v, Ka\ an avrcov d(piKO pevqs eniaroXfjs aio-r' dnoKreivai, xmo-
^copti 7rapa Tio-o-a(pepvr)v. Id. VIII, 45.

See the examples collected by Kriiger, Vol. I, § 56, 14, 2; and
his note to Thuc. IV, 5, 1.

§ lid. The Participle may be joined with certain
verbs to restrict their meaning to particular actions,
in a sense which often resembles that of the Infinitive
(§ 92, 1). Such a Participle may agree in case with
either the subject or the object of the verb.

1. The Participle is thus used especially with verbs signi-
fying to begin, to continue, to endure, to persevere, to cease (or
cause to cease), to repent, to be weary of, to be pleased, dis-
pleased, or ashamed, to represent (as in a poem), to find.

Further, after verbs signifying to overlook or to allow (nepto-
pdo>, eabopdu), with nepieibov and enelbov, sometimes el8ov) the
Participle is used in the sense of the object Infinitive, the Pres-
ent and Aorist Participles differing merely as the same tenses
of the Infinitive would differ in similar constructions (§ 15, 1 ;
§ 23, 1). See § 24, Note 2. E. g.

(a.) *Ap£op.ai Xeyav, I will begin to speak. Plat. Symp. 186 B.
Uavo-ai\eyovo- a, cease speaking. Eur. Hippol. 706. (So dnemeiv
Xeycui'.) Ovk dve^opai £<S<ra, I shall not endure to live. lb. 355.
Tr)v (pi\oaro(piav navcrov ravra Xeyovo-av, cause philosophy to stop
saying this. Plat. Gorg. 482 A. Kai e'-ya) rots epcorcocri -^alpa
dnoKpt.v6p.evos, I like to answer, &c. Id. Prot. 318 D. To> pev
pa xaipov v o art) a a vr i, they rejoiced in his return. Od. XIX, 463.
Trjs AioXi8os \a\enas e<pepev dneo-T e or] pe vos , he took it hardly
that he was deprived of Aeolis. Xen. Hell. Ill, 2, 13. Alo-xvvoH-M
X e y a) v , I am ashamed to say. (For alo-xvvopai Xeyeiv, see below,
N. 6.) 'AnoKapvai Tpex^v, I am weary of running. Tovs in Tr)s vr)crov
8eo-pa>ras perepeXovro dno8e 8 a k ore s , they repented oj having given
them up. Thuc. V, 35. Ylenoi-qKe tovs ev "Ai8ov tov del xP°V0*
r ip a>povp,evovs , he has represented those in Hades as suffering

§ 112, 2.] PARTICIPLE WITH VERBS. 227

punishment. Plat. Gorg. 525 E. Evptv 8' evpvoKa Kpnv'^v artp
ypevov aXXoov, she found him sitting apart. II. I, 498. So I, 27.

(6.) Mi) 7rfpii8a)fifu vftpicrde'icrav rnv Aa<etalpova ko.1 Kara-
<ppovr)deicrav, let us hot allow Lacedacmon to be insulted and despised.
Isoc. Archid. 138 A. § 108. Mi] p Idelv BavovQ' vn dcrrvv, not to
see me killed. Eur Orest. 746. TXrjuai ere dpmcrav, that thou shouldst
take courage to do. Soph. El. 943. See examples in § 24, N. 2.

Remark. In Herodotus 7rt1pdop.cu is often used with the Parti-
ciple in the same way ; as ovk eneipaTo enicov 6 Kvpos, Cyrus did
not attempt to approach, I, 77. So I, 84; VI, 50.

'A7roSei(cw/xt and 7rapaaK€va(o), in the meaning to render, may take
the Participle as well as the Infinitive; as in Xen. Cyr. I, 6, 18, apa
Km TaTriTTjdeia pdXio~ra e'xovras airooei£eiv Kai ra adupara apicrra
e'xovras irapao-Kevdcrei.v. So Arist. Plut. 210, ^Xeirovr' drro-
t)eiga> ere, I will make you see. See these two verbs in Liddell and
Scott's Lexicon.

2. The Participle used with the following verbs contains
the leading idea of the expression: 8iaTtXia>, to continue,
\av6dva, to escape the notice of, rvyxafa, to happen, <p6dva>,
to anticipate, to get the start of ot go/tat, to be gone, and 6 a pi-
Cat, to be wont or to be frequent.

So in poetry with Kvpeco, to happen ; and in Herodotus
with crvp.7r'nrr(o, to happen, and with noXXos elpi, ttoXXos eyKeipai, or
rravTohs yiyvopat, to be urgent ; and in Homer with (2r) for (fir).
E.g.

AtaTfXfiJiri to pexP1 6Ve^ a'e' eovres eXevdepoi, they still remain
free. Hdt. VH, 111. "Ocrr/v evvoiav ex^v eyu> ^lareXui, as much
good, will as I continually bear. Dem. Cor. § 1. "EXadev (avrhu)
depdevra irdvra Ka\ KaracpXe x& e vra, everything took fire and toas
consumed before she knew it. Thuc. IV, 133. (See § 24, Note 1.)
$>ovea tov ncudos eXdvOave j36crKa>i>, he was unconsciously supporting
the murderer of his son. Hdt. I, 44. (See Rem. below.) 'Etw^ok
iv rrj dyopq onXlraL Kad e vSovres , soldiers happened to be sleeping
in the market-place. Thuc. IV, 113. Kara 6eov yap riva ervxov
Kadi) pevos ivravBa, I happened to be sitting there. Plat. Euthyd.
272 E. Ol $' ovk ecpdacrav wvdo pe vol t6v noXepov, Kai . . . tjkov,
they no sooner heard of the war than they came, &c. Isoc. Paneg. 58
B. § 86. vEcp6r] crav noXXa) oi SkvOm tovs TJe'poas erri rr)v yecpvpav
driKopevoi, the Scythians came to the bridge much before the Per-
sians. Hdt. IV, 136. Avrol cpdr)crovrai tovto 8 p dcravres, they
will be the first to do this for themselves. Plat. Rep. II, 375 C (See
§ 24, N. 1.) &6dvovcr 1 eV aura Karacpevy ovres, they are the
first to run to them. Aeschin. Cor. § 248. Oi^erai cpevycov, he hat
taken flight. *lpt e tBevoov a>x«"o, ^e was 90ne on an enwassy. Xen

228 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ 112, i.

Cyr. V, 1, 3. Ou n Kopi£6p.ev6s ye 6dp.i£ev, he had not been used
to being thus cared for. Od. VIII, 451. Ov 6ap.i(ets Karafiaivav
els tov Tleipata, you do not come down very often. Plat. Rep. I,
328 C.

Tovtov olo-Q' ft (av Kvpel; dost thou know whether he is perchance
living? Soth. Phil. 444. EloXXdr rjv Xi.o~o-6p.evos 6 t-eivos, the
stranger entrtated urgently. Hdt. IX, 91. TeXmv 8e iroXXos eve-
Keiro X e y on v roidde, and Gelon spoke urgently as follows. Id. VII,
158. Tore -tuvtoIoi eyevovro 'S.Kvdai 8e o pevot. ru>v'I(j)va>vXvo~aiT6v
iropov, they begged them in every way (lit. they took every form in
begging them). Id. VII, 10. HvveneivTaKee epis eovaa, there had
happened to be a quarrel. Id. I, 82. Bi) (pevycov, he took flight. H.
11,665. (See§ 97, N. 1.)

Remark. Aavddva being an active verb, meaning to escape the
notice of must have an object expressed or understood. When no
object is expressed, sometimes -rdvras is understood, and sometimes
a rrflexive referring to the subject. Thus eXade tovto noirjo-as may
mean either he did this without any one's knowing it (sc. navras), or
he did this unconsciously (sc. eavrov).

Note 1. *ApKea>, to be suffcient, and Ikovos, f]8lcov, Kpelo~o-u>v, or
fdeXrlav dpi are sometimes use<3 in a personal construction with the
Participle (like SrjXos el/u, &c, § 113, N. 1), where we should ex-
pect an impersonal construction with the Infinitive. E. g.

'ApAceo-to 6vr]crKova e'yco, it ivill be enough for me to die. Soph.
Ant. 547. (We should expect dpiceo-ei ipo\ dvrjo-iceiv.) Kpe io-o-a>v
yap -qcrQa p-nxer av ij £6>v rv<pX6s. Id. O. T. 1368. 'HBlovs eaea-Qe
aKovo-avres- Dem. Aristoc. 641, 9.

Note 2. As di/eyo/xat, to endure, may govern either the ac-
cusative or the genitive, it may take a Participle in either case
agreeing with the object. Thus we may say either dvexeral rwa
Xeyovra, or dve^eTai rivos Xeyovros , he endures any one's say-
ing.

Note 3. The phrase ovk av cpddvois (or ovk av cpddvoire), you
could not be too soon, is used with the Participle as an exhortation,
meaning the sooner the better. The third person, ovk av (pddvoi,
is sometimes used, meaning, it might as well happen now as ever (Jbr
it must happen). See Passow.

Note 4. The Participle &v is sometimes omitted in the construc-
tions of § 112. E.g.

Ei be ti rvyxduei drjbes (sc. ov.) Plat. Gorg. 502 B.

Note 5. Aavddva is sometimes followed by on and a finite verb,
as in Xen. Mem. Ill, 5, 24. When it is used impersrnally, it regu
larly takes Sri.

Note 6. Some verbs of this class are followed by the Infinitive
as well as by the Participle ; generally, however, with some differ'

S 113.] PARTICIPLE WITH VERBS. 229

ence in meining. Thus alo-xvvopai \kyu>v means / am ashamed to
say (but do say); alaxvvopai \iytiv means / am ashained to say
(and therefore do not say). So awoicapvco tovto not civ, I am weary
of doing this ; but diroKapvat tovto tvohIv, I cease to do this through
iceariness. (See Passow, or Liddell and Scott, under these words ;
and Passow under apxopai) See nepudelv rrju yrjv Tprjdrjvai,
Thuc. II, 20; and rrepudetv avTr\v t pnddo-av, II, 18; where it is
difficult to detect any difference in meaning. See, however, Krii-
ger's note on I, 35.

Note 7. The Aorist (seldom the Perfect) Participle may be
joined with the subject of e^cu, forming a periphrastic Perfect. This
is especially common in Sophocles and Euripides. E. g.

Toj/ pev irpoTi aas , tov S* drifiacras «x«. Soph. Ant. 22. So
Eur. Med. 33 and 90. IloXXa xP*}!xaTa t'x°H-fV o.vn pnanoTt s.
Xest. An. I, 3, 14.

For a similar periphrasis to express the Future Perfect, see § 29,
Note 4 ; and § 108, Note 6.

Note 8. The Participles j3ov\6p.e vot, 3e\a>v, fj86p.(vos,
irpoo-dex&ncos, and e'Xn-o/ieyos sometimes agree in case
with a dative, which depends on dpi or on a verb signifying to
come or to happen ; the whole forming a periphrasis for the
verb of the Participle. E. g.

'Evtlv avT<o j3ov\6pevco, it is to him w'ishing it, i. e. Tie wishes it.
Kai npo cr8 f^ofif va> poi tcl ttjs opyrjs vpaiv es epe yeytvqTai, i. e.
1 have been expecting the manifestations of your anger towards me.
Thuc. II, 60.

§ 1 13. The Participle is used also with many verbs
signifying to see, to perceive, to know, to hear or learn, to
remember, to forget, to show, to appear, to prove, to ac-
knowledge, and with ayyeXkco, to announce. The Parti-
ciple here resembles the Infinitive in indirect discourse
(§ 92, 2), each tense representing the corresponding
tense of the Indicative or Optative.

The Participle may belong to either the subject or the
object of these verbs, and agree with it in case. E. g.

Mepvnpai '.vtov tovto no irjaavra, I remember that he did this;
fiepvnpai tov-o iroirjcras, I remember that I did this. (In the first
case enoino-ev is represented ; in the 6econd, enoirjo-a.) Oide tovtovs
tv irpa£ovras, he knows that they will prosper ; olbe avTbs ev 7rpd£atv,
he knows that he himself will prosper. Aei£<o tovtou i^dpov ovra, 1

230 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ ] 13.

shall prove that he is an enemy ; Sei^o-erai ovros exdpbs &v,he tciu
be proved to be an enemy.

For other examples see § 73, 2; where examples of the Participle
with av after these verbs may be found. See also § 41.

Note 1. The Participle is used in the same way with

&rj\os el (Mi and (pavepos el pi. E.g.

ArjXos r r/v olopevos, k.t.X., it was evidem that he thought, &c.
Xen. An. II, 5, 27. (This is equivalent to 8ij\ov r,v on oloiro.
, f I12' N" lm) See.below> Note 7. "ATrtKo/xei/ot pep (pavepoi
elcri es"Oao-tv iroXiv, it is evident that they came to the city Oasis.
Hdt. Ill, 26. So with (pavepbv ttouui : as cpavepov nacriv iiroir^o-av
ovk I8ia noXepoivres, they made it evident to all that they were not
fighting for themselves. I ycurg. Leocr. p. 154, § 50.

Note 2. When any ol these verbs has for its object an accusa-
tive of the reflexive pronoun referring to its subject, the Participle
agrees with the reflexive. Thus we may have 8el$a> epavrov tovto
TreiroirjKOTa, I shall show that I have done this, for det'£« tovto rre-

VQllJKIOSt

Note 3. If the Participle of an impersonal verb is used in
this construction, it must stand in the neuter singular (of
course without a noun). The following example includes this
and also the ordinary construction : —

Tleipacropai he'i^ai /cat perbv tt)s noXeas i)p!v nai ncrrovBoTa
tpavTov ovx) npoo-fjKovTa, I shall try to show not only that we have
rights in the city, but also that I have suffered, &c. Dem. Eubul. 1299
4', ,(^e dim^ discourse is pereaTi Ttjs TToXeas fjpiv, km ite-novQa
airos.) See § 111.

Note 4. Some verbs which regularly take the Infinitive in in-
direct discourse (§ 92, 2) occasionally take the Participle. E. g.

No/u£e avbpa dyadov a no kt e ivav , think that you are putting to
death a good man. Xen. An. VI, 6, 24.

Note 5. The Participle S>v may be omitted here, as well as after
the verbs of § 112.

Note 6. When o-ivoiba and a-vyytyvma-Kot are followed
by a dative of the reflexive pronoun referring to the subject of
the verb, the Participle can stand either in the dative agreeing
with the reflexive, or in the nominative agreeing with the sub-
ject; as <rvi>oi8a cpavTtp r)8iKT)peva> (or f] 8 ikt) pivos), lam con-
scious (to myself) thai I have bce?i wronged.

Note 7. The verbs included in § 113 may also be followed by
a clause with on, instead of the more regular Participle. When

§ 113. J 'Gs WITH THE PARTICIPLE. 231

hrj\6u etriiv and (pavepov i-mv are used impersonally, they regularly
take a clause with ort. (See § 112, N. 5.)

Note 8. Most of these verbs are also found with the Infinitive.
(See Passow, or Liddell and Scott.) But olSa takes the Infinitive
only when it means to know how. Thus olda tovto notdv means
/ know how to do thin, but olda tovto rroicov means / know that I am
doing this.

Note 9. Verbs signifying to remember or to knoio may be fol-
lowed by ore (when) and the Indicative, if a particular occasion is
referred to with emphasis. E. g.

Ei yap pepvrjtrat ot eyco o~oi d-rfKpivdpr-v, for if you remember (the
time) when I answered you, &c. Plat. Men. 79 D. olad' ore
Xpvtreois eCpdvrj triiv orikois. Eur. Hec. 112.

Note 10. (a.) 'Qs is sometimes prefixed to the Participle in
connection with the verbs of § 113. It implies that the Participle
expresses the idea of the subject of the leading verb, or that of some
other person prominently mentioned in the sentence. (See § 109,
N. 4.) When this is also implied by the context (as it usually is in
such sentences), the cbs merely adds emphasis to the expression. Thus
io-di ravra ovtcos ?xovTa means know that this is so; but loQi cos ravra
ovtcos e%ovTa means know that you may assume this to be so. E. g.

'fij prjdev eiSor' IctOl p.' cov dviaropeh, understand (that you must
.ook upon) me as knowing nothing of what you seek. Soph. Phil.
253. 'fit p.rj<€T opt a Keivov iv tpdei voei, think of him as no longer
living. lb. 415. 'flj tuvt eVi'crrco bpcouev, ov pcWovr en, under-
stand that you may assume these things to be going on, &c. lb. 567.
Qs pi] 'p.no\r}o-cov tad i ttjv £pr)v (ppeva, be assured that you will not
buy me off from my determination. Soph. Ant. 1063. A^Xois 8' cos
n an pavcov veov, you show that you have something new in your mind
to disclose. lb. 242. Ar/Xos r/v Kipos <u s o-rrevdcov, it was evident (by
the conduct of Cyrus) that Cyrus was in haste. Xkn. An. I, 5, 9.
Ylaripa tov crov dyyeXcov co s ovk Zt ovt a, (he comes) to announce that
your father is no more. Soph. O. T. 956. (In vs. 959, the messenger
himself says ev \o-ff iicelvov 6a.vdo~ip.ov /3e/3r; <ora.)

The force of cos here can seldom be expressed in English.

(b.) The Participle thus joined with cos may stand with its sub-
stantive in the genitive or accusative absolute. This sometimes
happens even when the substantive would naturally be the object
of the verb of knowing, &c, so that if the cos were omitted, the ac-
cusative would be used (as in a). E. g.

'G sobS* c'xovtcov tcovcV tTTLO-raadai ere XP1- Vou must understand
that this is so. Soph. Aj. 281. Here the genitive absolute has at
first the appearance of a dependent clause ; but cos does not mean
that, and the literal translation would be, this being so (as you may
assume), you must understand it to be so. (See Schueide win's note

232 THE PARTICIPLE. [§ 113.

on the passage.) 'flj tolwv ovtchv ravbi croi padelv ndpa, since this
is so, you may learn it, i. e. you may team that this is so. Aesch.
Prom. 760. 'Qs rroXe'fiov ovtos nap' vp.S)v dirayye\u> ; shall I an-
nounce from you that there is war t lit. assuming that there is war,
shall I announce it from you? Xen. An. II, 1, 21. 'Qsirdw pot
Sokovv, . . . ovtcos 'lo-Qi, know that I think so very decidedly, lit. since
(as you must understand) this seems good to me, be sure of it. Id.
Mem. IV, 2, 30.

(c.) We sometimer find the Participle with cos even after verbs
and expressions which do not regularly take the Participle by § 113.
Kg.

'Qs efjiov ovv I ovtos 07177 av (cat vaus, ovtco ttjv yvcoprjv e^ere, be
of this opinion, that I shall go, &c. Xen. An. I, 3, 6. So Thuc. VII,
15. "Orav cos n er 6 fieroi iv tco vttvco SiavocovTai. when in their sleep
they fancy themselves flying Plat. Theaet. 158 B. 'Qs tolwv prt
aKovaopevcov , ovtcos 8ia"oe lade, make up your minds then that we
shall not hear, lit. since then (as you must know) we shall not hear, so
make up your minds. Plat Rep. I, 327 C. 'Qs o-TpaTr\yr\o-ovra
eue pr]he\s XeyeVo), let no one speak of me as likely to be the general.
Xen. An. I, 3, 15. Ovtco o-Koircouev, cos Tax av, el tv^oi, kol\ tovtcov
Kaneivcov a v a /3 a v t a> v , let us look at the case, assuming that both this
and that might perhaps happen if chance should have it so. Dem.
Aristoc. 638, 25. (Literally, sine? (at we may assume) both this and
that might perhaps happen if it should zhance t^ bs so, W us look at it
in this light.) For av, see § 41, 3.

Remark. The examples included in .^te 1<3 (V\ < c<J ('A b*Jcng
properly under § 109, N. 4. (See also § iLO, 1 tf. \ ; n<\ &e >«*
example under § 110, 2, N. 1.)

§ 114, 2. : VERBAL ADJECTIVES ES -Ttog. 233

CHAPTER VII.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES IN -tco?.

§ 114. The verbal in -reos is used both in a per-
sonal and an impersonal construction.

1. In the personal construction the verbal is always
passive in sense ; expressing necessity (like the Latin
Participle in -dus) and agreeing with its subject in case.
E.g.

'Qc^eX^rta aoi fj ttoXis earl, the city must be benefited by you.
Xen. Mem. Ill, 6, 3. *AX> as (i/aus) in tuk ^vp-pd^oov /ieT arre p.-
■nrias elvai (((prj), he said that others must be sent for. Thuc. VI, 25.
Oi yap npb ttjs dXnOeias rip,rjr e os dvrjp, aXX' 6 Xe'ya) prjTeov. Pl AT.
Rep. X, 595 C. So VIII, 561 C. &pd£ovres a>s oil otyi rre pioirTfT]
tori fj 'EXXas aTToWvpevT). Hdt. VII, 168.

Note. The substantive denoting the agent is here in the dative,
as in the impersonal construction.

2. In the impersonal construction (which is the most
o )mmon) the verbal stands in the neuter of the nom-
inative singular (sometimes plural) with ean expressed
or understood, and is regularly active in sense. The
expression is equivalent to Set, it is necessary, with the
Infinitive active or middle of the verb from which the
verbal is derived.

Active verbals of this class may take an object in the
same case which would follow their verbs. The agent
is generally expressed by the dative, sometimes by the
accusative. E. g.

Tavra fjpiv (or f]fias) iroinreov «rrt, we must do this, equivalent
to ravra fjpds Sel Troirjaai. (See Rem. 2.) Olareov rdde, it is
necessary to bear these things. Eur. Orest. 769. 'AnaWaKreov
avrov (rou o~a>p.aros) , not avrj) rfj "^vxjj 8 € ar tov avrd ra npaypara.
Plat. Phaed. 66 E. (AeZ a7raXXdrre(r#ai avroii, Ka\ rfj \^vx3

234 VERBALS V* -lios. [§ 114, 2.

6ea<r6ai to. irpdypara.) <pnp\ 8r) 8ixfj &or] drjreov eivai rots npd-
ypaaiv vpiv, that you must give assistance in two ivays. Dem. 01. 1, 14, 6.
Ti av avra noirjreov e&j ; what would he be obliged to do f Xen.
Mem. I, 7, 2. 'E\jfr)(pio-avTo no\f firjTe a eivai (=S«n/ iro\epeiv),
they voted that they must go to war. Thuc I, 88. Tfjv x^pav, e£ rjs
avrols oppccuevois no\e p-rjre a rjv. Id. VI, 50. Ovre pio~6 o(f)o-
pTjTtov aWovs fj roiis o-rparevopevovs, ovre pede are ov reov irpa-
yparcov 7rXe iotriv tj TrevTaKiaxiXiois. Id. VIII, 65. (Here both the
accusative and the dative of the agent are found.) See Rem. 2.
Hpiv 8e £vppa\oi dyado\, otis ov irapahoTe a rols ' Adyvaiois ecrriv,
ov8e diKais Kal \6yois 8 laic pire a pr) Xoyw Kal (rjpds) avrovs ($\a-
TVTopevovs, aWa r 1 pa pnre a ev Td)(fi Ka\ iravTi adevei (= ov? ov
8ti fjp.as 7rapa8ovvai, k.t.X.). Id. I, 86. 'Itcov av e'in Oeaaopevovs,
it would be best for us to go and see her. Xen. Mem. Ill, 11, 1.
('H/iay is understood.) Ov8evl rpi'ma (pap.ev enovras d^Ltcnreov eivai-
Plat. Crit. 49 A. 'Arap ov yvvaiKav ov8eTror eo-0' fjTTnrea r)piv
(= ov yvvaiiccov Set ^TTaadai), but we. must never be beaten by women.
Arist. Lys. 450. So Soph. Ant. 678.

Note. A sentence sometimes begins with an impersonal verbal
in -reov and is continued with an infinitive, the latter depending on
8ei implied in the verbal. E. g.

Uavraxov Troinreov a av Ke\evrj r) ttoKis koi 17 narpls, n -nei&eiv
aiiTTjv. Plat. Crit. 51 B.

Remark 1. The same impersonal construction is found in
Latin, but very seldom with verbs which take an object accusa-
tive; as Eundum est tibi (Ireov ecrri aoi), — Moriendum est omnibus,
— Bello utendum est nobis (tg> TroXepa xPrj°"r^0V *ot\v r)piv), we must
employ war. See Madvig's Latin Grammar, § 421, a and b).

Remark 2. The dative and the accusative of the agent are both
allowed with the verbal in -reov (or -rea) ; although in the equiva-
lent construction of 8ei with the Infinitive the accusative is the only
form regularly used. Thus we can say tovto rjp.lv itwifriov or tovto
t)(ias noinreov, but only tovto ijfias 8tl iroulv.

APPENDIX.

I. Ok the Relations of the Greek Optative to thb
Subjunctive and the Indicative.*

From the time of the Alexandrian grammarians a special mood
called the Optative (ey/cAio-is (vktlkt]) has been recognized in Greek
as distinct from the Subjunctive (eyKXtcny inoTaKTiKr}). The an-
cient classification has been called in question in later times, and
many grammarians of high authority have adopted or favored a
union of the Subjunctive and Optative in one mood, to be called
the Subjunctive or Conjunctive, in which the Subjunctive (com-
monly so called) is to supply the primary tenses, and the forms
commonly assigned to the Optative the secondary tense. Thus the
Present Optative would be called an Imperfect Subjunctive; noia
and noiolai, for example, being supposed to bear the same relation
to each other as faciam and facerem in Latin.

This was first reduced to a systematic form by Kiihner, who, in-
deed discards the common names Subjunctive and Optative (except
as explanatory terms), and adopts the cumbrous expressions " Con-
junctive of the primary tenses" and " Conjunctive of the secondary
tenses." Host, in his Griechische Grammatik, § 118, says : " The so-
called Optative is nothing but a peculiar form of the Subjunctive,
and stands to the Greek Subjunctive in the same relation as in
other languages the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive to the
Present and Perfect." Donaldson in his New Cratylus (p. 617, 2d
ed.) says: " It has long been felt by scholars on syntactical grounds,
that, considered in their relations to each other and to the other
moods, they [the Subjunctive and Optative] must be regarded as
differing in tense only." Again (p. 618) : " These moods have no
right to a separate classification." Crosby, in his Grammar, § 591,
says of this classification, that " it deserves the attention of the
student, although it is questionable whether it is best to discard the
old phraseology."

As the classification of Kiihner has been introduced into many
elementary grammars, so that many boys are now taught to call the
tenses commonly known as the Present and Perfect Optative by
the strange names of Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, the

* Reprinted, with a few changes, from the Proceedings of the American
Academy of Aits and Siences for Jan. 8, 1861 : Vol. V. pp. 96 - 102.

236 APPENDIX.

question becomes not merely of theoretical, but eminently of prac-
tical importance. In fact it meets every student, and more espe-
cially every teacher of Greek grammar, the moment he reaches the
paradigm of the regular verb. If it were merely a question of con-
venience, therefore, it would be highly important to have it settled,
for the sake of uniformity.

The question What shall constitute a distinct mood in any lan~
giwge f must be settled to some extent arbitrarily. No precise rule
will meet all cases ; yet we may safely maintain that, when any
series of verbal forms in which the chief tenses are represented ex-
hibits a closer connection in form and use among its members than
it bears as a whole to any corresponding series, it is entitled to the
rank of an independent mood. That this is true of the Latin Sub-
junctive is clear; and it is equally clear that the Imperfect and
Pluperfect of that mood have sufficiently strong bonds of connection
with the Present and Perfect to prevent them from being marked
off as a distinct mood. A merely superficial view of the relation of
the Greek Subjunctive and Optative might lead us to the idea that
the two combined would form a mood similar to the Latin Subjunc-
tive, thus simplifying the Greek conjugation and introducing a new
analogy with the Latin. But it is this fatal error of carrying the
analogy between the Greek and Latin further than the connection
of the two languages warrants, which has thrown this whole subject
into confusion. When the Latin was looked upon as an offspring
of the Greek, as the result of a union of the Aeolic dialect of Greece
with barbarian languages in Italy, the presumption was decidedly in
favor of such an analogy, and it would even have required strong
proof to convince us of any radical difference in the modal systems
of the two languages. But the more correct views now entertained
of the origin of the Latin would rather lead us to believe that each
language developed its syntax, and especially its modal system, in-
dependently. The modal system of the parent language of the
Indo-European group is of course hopelessly unknown ; and yet the
comparison of the Latin and Greek verb with the Sanskrit (as the
oldest representative of the family) sometimes enables us to deter-
mine special points in regard to the primitive forms with an ap-
proach to certainty. Thus, to take the simplest case, when we find
asti in Sanskrit meaning is, we may be sure that some similar form
existed with that meaning in the parent language of the Sanskrit,
the Greek, the Latin, the German, &c, from which e'ori, est, ist, &c.
were derived. So when we find a Potential mood in Sanskrit,
which presents striking analogies both to the Greek Optative and
to the Latin Subjunctive, and furthermore find the analogy extend-
ing even to the Gothic, we must conclude that the primitive lan-
guage contained the elements which the Greek developed into its
Optative, and the Latin into its Subjunctive. (See Bopp's Fer-
gleichende Grammatik, II. pp. 257-959.) Again, the absence in
later Sanskrit of any form corresponding to the Greek Subjunctive
might lead us to think that the Greek developed that mood by

APPENDIX 237

itself; but in the Yedic dialect a few relics are found of a true Sub«
juuctive, with a long connectiug-vowel as its characteristic ; for
example, patali, bearing the same relation to the Present Indicative
patati as l5ov\r]Tai to jSovXtrai. This seems to show that a similar
mood existed in the parent language. If this testimony can be
relied on, we must conclude, not only that the Latin and Greek
derived the rudiments of their modal forms from a common ances-
tor, but that they inherited them from a period anterior to the
separation of the Indian branch from the Indo-European family.
We should therefore expect to find that the elements are generally
the same in the two languages, but that the development is essen-
tially different ; and that the refinements in signification, for which
the Greek modal forms are especially conspicuous, have been for
the most part developed by each language within itself.

Let us now examine the forms themselves, to see how far a paral-
lel can be drawn betweeen the Greek and Latin moods. In clauses
expressing a purpose or object after ha, ottoos, &c, we certainly find
the Subjunctive and Optative used like primary and secondary
tenses of the same mood : thus where in Latin we have manet ul hoc
facial, and manebat ut hoc faceret, we have fxevei ha tovto n o i fj , and
tpevev ha tovto iroioirj. But even in this case of strongest resem-
blance there is no place for the Future Optative, which correspond?
to the Future Indicative. Again, in clauses expressing general sup-
positions after iav or el, or after relatives or temporal particles, de-
pending on verbs which denote general truths or repeated actions,
a correlation of the Subjunctive and Optative is found, analogous
to that of the two divisions of the Latin Subjunctive ; for example,
in iav tovto Troifj davfj.d(ovo-iv, and el tovto noioin idav^a^ov, which
are sometimes represented in Latin by such forms as si hoc facial
mirantur, and si hoc faceret mirabantur, although generally the In-
dicative is preferred. Here, however, the analogy ceases, if we
except certain cases of indirect question hereafter to be noticed,
and a Homeric construction in relative sentences expressing a
purpose, which almost disappears from the more cultivated lan-
guage.

Let us turn now to the Optative in wishes; for here, if anywhere,
we may look for the primary meaning of this mood. From this use
it derives its name ; and especially this is its only regular use in
independent sentences, except in apodosis with Sv. Here some
have been so far misled by the supposed analogy of the Latin, as to
translate the Present Optative by the Latin Imperfect Subjunctive :
but a slight examination will show that the Present and Aorist Op-
tative are here so far from being secondary tenses of the Subjunc-
tive, that they are equivalent to the Present Subjunctive in Latin,
and refer to the future, while the Greek Subjunctive cannot even
regularly stand in such expressions. Thus eWe e'irjv is utinam sim, 0
that I tnay be; eWt yhoiro, utinam fat, 0 that it may happen^; whereas
utinam esset and utinam factum esset correspond to eWe r\v and ei#«
iyivtTO.

238 APPENDIX.

In ordinary protasis and apodosis the same relation is seen Tin
four Greek forms, eav n o ifj , tav ttoit] cry , d woio lr] , and et it o i r\ -
«r«ie, find in the Latin Subjunctive only one equivalent, si facial.
(For the first two the Latin generally preferred the Future or
Future Perfect Indicative.) Here therefore the absurdity of classi-
fying the last two as secondary forms of the first two, in conformity
to a Latin analogy, is especially clear. What the Latin analogy
would lead us to expect as secondary forms, the equivalents of si
faceret and sifecisset, can be expressed in Greek only by the Indica-
tive. In apodosis the Optative with av is equivalent to the pri-
mary, not to the secondary, tenses of the Latin Subjunctive ; thus,
rreirjo-cujLu av is equivalent to faciam (not to fecissem, which would be
iroirjara av). Here likewise the Subjunctive cannot be used in
Attic Greek. This analogy between the Optative and the primary
tenses of the Latin Subjunctive might lead us even to the view that
the latter ought rather to be called an Optative, for which view
there are certainly much stronger reasons than for the opposite one
which we are considering.

An Homeric exception to the principles of the last two para-
graphs (explained in § 49, 2, Note 6, and § 82, Remark 2 of the
present work) has little or no weight in this discussion ; for, al-
though we find examples in which the Optative in conditional
sentences and wishes is used like the secondary tenses of the Latin
Subjunctive, the ordinary use of the Optative referring to the
future in those constructions is perfectly well established in the
Homeric language. It would be a mere gratuitous assumption to
maintain that the exceptions (like H. V, 311 and 388) represent the
original idiom of the language.

In indirect quotations and questions the Optative is used after
past tenses, each tense of the Indicative or Subjunctive in the
direct discourse being then changed to the corresponding tense ol
the Optative. Thus, elivtv on a bvvairo ttoitjo-oi, he said that he would
do what he could, implies that the direct discourse was a av bvva>-
fiai 7roi7/(T6), / shall do what I may be able. Here the first Optative
is the irrelative of the Subjunctive ; but it is quite as often the
correlative of the Indicative, as when we say direv on a b v v a i r o
iroioir), he said that he was doing tohat he could, where the direct dis-
course is a bvvafiai noia, I am doing what I am able. One tense
of the Optative, the Future, can never represent a Subjunctive, as
that mood has no corresponding tense ; but it always represents a
Future Indicative. Nothing more need be said to show the absurd-
ity of calling this tense a secondary tense of the Subjunctive. The
three remaining tenses of the Optative can with no more propriety
be called secondary tenses of the Subjunctive than of the Indicative,
for they represent both on precisely the same principles. This is
especially obvious in regard to the Aorist, which has two distinct
meanings in indirect questions, — one when it represents an Aorist
Indicative, and another when it represents an Aorist Subjunctive,
the direct form. Thus, rjyvott ri 7toiij o-e itv may mean either hi

APPENDIX. 239

knew not whit he had done, or he knew not what he should do ; as the i(
direct question may have been either ri enoincra ; what did I do f or 1 1
ri TTOLrjaco ; (Aor. Subj.), what shall 1 do? Strangely enough, this | '
very class of sentences is supposed to furnish the most striking .\
analogy between the Latin Subjunctive and the Greek Subjunctive
and Optative combined. Non habet quo se vertat and non habebat quo
te verteret are indeed equivalent to ovk e^ei otttj TpuirrjTai and ovk
tl)(ov onn rpdiroiTo, but a single example like ^pa>Ta>e avrov ei ava-
jrXewcretei/, / asked him whether he had set sail (Dkm. in Polycl. p.
1223, 21), in which dvcnr\evo-eiev represents an Aorist Indicative
(aveir\evo-as ;) shows that the argument proves too much. Indirect
quotations and questions therefore afford us no more proof that the
Optative is a secondary form of the Subjunctive, than that it is a
secondary form of the Indicative.

Two tenses of the Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, have
no corresponding tenses in the Optative, so that these are regularly
retained in the Indicative in indirect discourse ; thus eiirev on ep.d-
■vovto means he said that they had been fighting, i. e. he said ipdxovro.
A rare exception to the last principle shows conclusively the pro-
priety of the names commonly given to the tenses of the Optative.
The want of a tense in the Optative to represent the Imperfect
Indicative in examples like the last was naturally felt as a defect ;
and in the Infinitive and the Participle this want was supplied by
using the Present in a new sense to represent the Imperfect, the
peculiar use being always denoted by something in the context
In j, few instances we find the Present Optative used in the same
way to supply the want of an Imperfect, the context making it clear
that the tense is not used in its ordinary sense. Such an instance
is found in Dem. Onet. I, 869, 12; dneKpivavTo on ov8e\s pdprvs
nape in, Kopi^oiro be \ap.$dva>v <a6' ottoo-ovovv heoiro A(pojBos
trap avrciv, they replied that no witness had been present, but that
Aphobus had received the money from them, taking it in such sums as
he happened to want. Here napein represents naprjv, and nopi^oiro
represents eKopi^ero, which would ordinarily be retained in such
a sentence. See § 70, 2, Note 1 (b) of the present work. If now the
name of Imperfect be given to the Present Optative in its ordinary
use, (when it represents a Present of the direct discourse, and is
merely translated by an Imperfect to suit the English idiom,) what
shall we call this true Imperfect Optative, which really repre-
sents an Imperfect Indicative, and stands where an Imperfect Indic-
ative is the regular form ?

We see than that the Optative was used in the whole class of con-
structions kr.own as oratio obliqua, or indirect discourse, as the corre-
lative not merely of the Subjunctive, but also of the Indicative, and
that it possessed the power of expressing in an oblique form every
tense of both those moods in a manner of which the Latin presents
hardly a trace. In fact, this use of the Greek Optative presents
one of the most striking examples of the versatility and flexibility
of the language, and of its wonderful adaptation to the expression

240 APPENDIX

of the nicest shades of thought of which the human mind is capable.
This single use of the mood seems sufficient in itself to prevent us
from assigning to it the subordinate rank of a secondary form
attached to the Subjunctive.

II On the Time denoted by the Tenses op the In-
finitive WHEN THEY ARE PRECEDED BY THE ARTICLE
AND HAVE A SUBJECT EXPRESSED.

The able and instructive treatise of Madvig on the two uses of
the Aorist Infinitive in Greek (in his Bemerkungen iiber einige
Puncte der griechischen Wortfugungslehre, published as a supplement
to his Syntax der griechischen Sprache) contains the earliest com-
plete statement of the ordinary uses of that tense. The same prin-
ciple, as far as it refers to indirect discourse, is clearly stated in
Sophocles's Greek Grammar (published in the same year, 1847).
But with these exceptions, no distinct statement had been made,
either in elementary grammars or in more elaborate treatises, of the
simple principle which distinguishes the use of the Aorist Infinitive
in fiovXtrai iXddv, he wishes to go, from that in (prjalv eXdeiv, he says
that he went. According to Madvig, however, the use of the Aorist
Infinitive as a past tense is not confined to indirect discourse, but
extends also to cases in which the Infinitive " has a subject ex-
pressed and at the same time is preceded by the article." This
principle was too hastily adopted, on Madvig's high authority, in
the first edition of the present work ; and, as there seemed no good
ground for distinguishing the Aorist from the Present Infinitive in
similar construction, the general principle was stated, that any tense
of the Infinitive could retain its designation of time (as in indirect
discourse) when it had at the same time the article and a subject.
The same class of sentences which seemed to confirm Madvig's view
of the Aorist furnished also examples of the Present, and the use of
this tense as an Imperfect made an exception here almost im-
possible.

A more careful review of all the examples quoted by Madvig, and
of all that I have met with in reading since adopting his principle,
has convinced me that the Aorist Infinitive here presents no pecu-
liarity, and that it differs from the Present only in the ordinary
way, by referring to a single or momentary act rather than to a
repeated or continued act. The single example quoted by Madvig
in his Syntax (§ 172) to support his principle is Dem. F. L. p. 360,
10, § 61 : to /jLTjSefMiav ra>v ir6\ta>v a~kwvai noXiopKia fifyio-TOv icrn
arj/jielov tov 8ia tovtovs iruo-devras avrovs ravra trad flu , the fact
that no one of the cities was taken by siege is the greatest proof that they

APPENDIX. 241

suffered these things, &c. In the later treatise he adds Thuc. I.
41, to 6V fjfias IIcXo7r ovvrja iovs avrols urj ^orjdr) <rai, — Xen. Mem.
1, 2, 1, Cyr. II, 2, 3, IV, 5, 12, — Dem. Chers. p. 105, 28; § 65,—
and Arist. Nub. 268. It will be seen that all these examples can
be explained by the ordinary principle of the Aorist Infinitive stated
above ; that is, the Infinitive is a mere verbal noun, designating no
time of itself, and is referred to special time only by the context,
which in these examples happens to refer it to the past. But when
the Infinitive with tov expresses a purpose (where Madvig himself
admits an exception) , it is referred by the context or by the general
meaning of the passage to the future : so in the following example
from Dem. Cor. p. 236, 20, § 33, where on Madvig's principle the
Infinitive must refer to the past: rjv ev <p6j3a> /X17, ei wpb tov tovs
Qaxeas aiToXio'dai ■^^icrato'de $or]da.v, e<(pvyoi ra irpayfiaT avrov,
he was in fear lest, if before the Phocians should be destroyed you
should vote to assist them, he might lose control of the business.

Other cases in which the Aorist Infinitive might seem to retain
its force as a past tense are satisfactorily explained by Madvig.
On the whole, it would be difficult to establish an exception to the
general principle, that the Aorist Infinitive is a past tense only in
indirect discourse, when it represents an Aorist Indicative after
verbs of saying, thinking, &c.

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES

ADDED IN THE THIRD AND FOURTH EDITIONS.

Aeschines.
In Ctes. § 10 .

§ 114 .

Page
168

207

Aristophanes.
Vesp. 109 . . 54

Demosthenes.
De Falsa Legatione.
p. 391, 11. § 159 99

Euripides.

Alcest. 386 . . 25

Page

Page

Homer.

Repub. IV, 434 A

115

11. XI, 21 .

171

V, 450 A

168

Odyss. II, 270

36

III, 92 .

115

IV, 167

138

Sophocles.

V, 216 .

171

Elect. 47

171

VI, 113

, 77

943 .

227

XI, 489 .

129

1478

171

XIII, 309

171

Oed. Col. 1770 .

115

Philoct. 232 .

171

Trachin. 934 .

171

Plato.

Apol. 30 D .

35

Gorg. 498 A

214

Xenophon.

Protag. 310 A

313 C .

25

79

Mem. IV, 3, 1

7?

317 A

208

317 D .

25

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES (1873).

Page

Aeschines, in Ctes. § 60 143

Demosthenes, De Corona, p. 255, 2, § 88 . • • 8

Herodotus, III, 31 144

Homer, II. 1, 22 190

Plato, Men. 72 C 55

" Crit. 51 T, 234

Sophocles, Aj. 1183 143

Thucydides, IV, 16 143

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

Page

Aeschines.

In Timarch. —

§ 99 . . .25

§ 125 . . 149

§ 127 . . .135

De Falsa Legat. —

§ 2 . . ,145

§ 145 (153) . 1+9

§151(160). . 149

In Ctesiph. —

§ 2 . . .99

§ 7 . . . 51

§ 69 . . .137

§ 83 7

§ 90 . . .162

4 HO . 118
4 123 ... 99

§ 147 . 120

§ 177 . . . 185

4 248 . . 227

Aeschylus.

Agam 15 . . 202

37 . . 105

160 . . 135

253 . . 198

340 . . 62

584 . . 188

620 . . 106

857 . 5

944 . 92, 93

1041 . . 35

1067 . . 211

1079 . . 195

1170 . . 202

1435 . . 128

Cnoeph. 246 . . 178

594 . 106

Eum. 298 . . 52

573 . . 69

691 . . 201

800 . . 181

Pers. 912 . . 184

Prorn 10 . 69

152 . . 72

15

Prom. 165
203

248
292
332
470
4S1
697
712
747
760
786
824
835
865
905
907
918
930
979
1004
1049
1051
Sept. 38
195
250
253
429
462 ,
712
720
754
790 ,
1037
1048 .
1057
Suppl. 499 .

Andocides.
Myst. I, 6, 38. § 43

Page

145

77

199

106

181

155

145

143

209

73

232

202

69

114

191

157

7, 221

202

43

11, 51, 105

181

. 175

175

. 184

111

37, 187

209

33

23

220

86

35

86

221

211

184

45

68

Antiphon.

De Caed. Herod.

p. 131, 36. § 19 . 126
133, 40. § 87 . 7

Page

Appian.

Bell. Civ. II,

91 . 24

Aristophanes.

Acharn. 312

. 37

816

209

Aves, 36

. 202

54 .

179

120

. 115

180 .

106

280

8

448 .

209

461

. 185

759 (761

) . 37, 93

964

. 211

11S7 .

179

1350

. 20

1375 .

110

1494

. 83

1508 .

69

1679

. 34

Eceles. 236

194

297

. 79

495

68

Eqnit. 112

. 82

696 .

25

698

. 105

Lysistr. 450

234

511

. 47

Nubes, 5

63

63

7

116 .

.51,118

125

6

229 .

112

268

. 209

296 .

186, 187

340

. 221

367 .

185

370

. 223

439 .

126

493

. 83

505 .

186

520

. 174

535 .

156

613

. 181

244

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

Nubes, 723
792
819
904
1130
1141
1151
1250
1255
1277
1301
1352
1383
1426
1433
1436
1466
Pac. 430
1179
Plut. 210
603
1027
Ran. 1 .
68

96&98
298
462 .
508, 509
624 .
679
686 .
695
830 .
866
871 .
955
1120 .
1125
1378 .
1446
1449 .
1459
Hesm. 372
870
Vesp. 283
397 .

. 208

110
. 21C

110

. 42

33

. 134

129

. 174

22

. 38

37

. Ill

23

. 112

21, 43

. 68

194
. 130

227

. 184

44

. 182

191
. 139

186

. 186

35, 185

. 186

93

61, 103

199

. 113

99

. 178

177
. 68

179
. 178

136
. 117

142
. 179

181
. 154

185

Lp.

Demosthenes.
Olynth.

9, 3, $ 1 .
9, 17. § 2 .

10, 1. § 2
12, 3. § 10

12, 22. § 12

13, 16. § 15 ,
13, 25. § 15

13, 27. fj 16

14, 6. § 17

15, 6. § 20

16, 22. $ 22

. 172

80

. 137

23, 203

. 12

140

. 191

12

. 234

122

. 154

I. p. 15, 28. § 23 . 198

16, 3. t) 23 . 18S
16, 25. § 26 51, 118

II. p. 20, 12. § 8 . 159

20, 18. § 8 113, 157

20, 27. § 9 45, 131

21, 1. $ 10 . 45
21, 10. § 11 137
21, 20. $12 10,108
23, 14. § 18 47
23, 27. § 20 . 189

23, 29. § 20 194

24, 12. t) 22 . 196

24, 23. | 23 120

25, 2. § 24 . 120
25, 19. § 26 141
25, 24. § 26 . 188

III. p. 28, 5. § 1 • 197

29, 18. § 3 . 197
30, 10. § 6 71
31, 1. f) 9 . 42

31, 11. $ 10 181

32, 16. { 14 . Ill
34, 8. § 20 216

34, 17. § 21 . 15

35, 1. § 23 216
35, 18. § 25 . 23

Philipp.
I. p. 40, 1. § 1
40, 9. § 1

40, 18. § 2

41, 3. § 3

41, 18. § 5

42, 1. § 6

43, 12. § 11

44, 12. § 15
44, 25. § 17

44, 30. § 18

45, 27. § 21
47, 24. § 27 .
61, 19. { 39
52, 17. § 43 .

63, 4. § 44

64, 18. § 50 .
64, 20. § 50 ,
64, 22. | 50 .

64, 27. § 61

65, 6 & 7. $ 51

in.

n,P.

ni. p

66, 15. § 3

67, 20. { 8

68, 12. § 11

69, 6. $ 13

70, 25. ij 20

70, 25. § 20
to 71, 12

71, 4. § 20

72, 25. § 29
74, 24. § 37
. 110, 1 $ 1

. 144

95

. 33

134

95

10, 130

. 119

111
. 49

107
. 128

135
. 128

120
. 184

161

. 103

44

. 131

126,

174
70, 140

139

206
13

114

53

J 15,

63

62

140

208

p. 114, 15. § 15
114, 20. § 15

122, 21. (j 45

123, 1. § 46

123, 16. § 48

124, 25. \ 64

124, 24. § 54

125, 10. $ 56

126, 19. (j 61
128,22.§69

128, 25. § 69

129, 14. § 71

130, 11. § 75
130, 14. $ 75

De Corona

225,
232,
234,
234,
234,
236,
236,
236,
236,
240,
241,
242,
243,
246,
251,
257,
260,
268,
268,
274,
276,
276,
284,
291,
291,
295,
296,
301,
302,
304,
313,
313,
327,
331,

13. § 1
20. § 22 .

5. § 26

6. § 26 .

26. § 28

12. § 32 .

19. § 33

20. ( 33 .
28. § 34
15. § 43 .
15. § 47
10. § 49 .
6. § 53

1. § 63 .
28. § 79
25. $ 95 .

2. § 101
23. § 123.
28. ( 124
28. $ 141.
1. § 145

23. § 148.

21. f) 169

27. § 190.

28. § 190

13. § 201 .

24. § 206
28. § 220.
24. (j 223
1. § 228 .
4. § 258
6. § 258 .
1. { 303
30. $ 322.

17

17
217
183

60

84
155

80

194

27,130

80
112
184

82

. 227

221

. 161

197

. 214

75

. 28

31,240

. Ill

113

. 137

111

. 195

98

. 95

215

. 101

36

. 183

119

. 115

163

. 151

15

. 119

31

. 117

213

. 117

111

. 68

87

5

220

De Falsa Legatione.

. 341, 12. § 1 . 71

341, 14. { 2 . 20

342, 2. § 3 . . 42
342, 10. § 3 . 20
342, 25. § 5 . 22C
342, 28. § 6 . 22
345, 14. § 14 61, 134
345, 27. § 16 20, 42
347, 26. { 21 22, 168

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

245

p. 350, 3. § 29

,

134

351, 4. § 32

.

6

351, 18. § 33

,

168

352, 28. § 37

m

158

353, 14 & 18. §

39

158

353, 24. § 40

49

354, 8. § 41

161

355, 17. § 45

»

79

355, 29. § 47

.

197

356, 10. § 48

.

158

356, 13. § 48

.

157

357, 3. § 51

.

64

360, 10. § 61

.

240

364, 11 & 12. §

74

88,
112

364, 18. 4 74

45

, 158

364, 25. § 75

215

369, 12. § 88

#

183

370, 22. § 94

79

372, 1. § 99

#

84

378, 4. § 120 .

155

378, 23. § 122

.

151

379, 2. § 123

98

379, 7. § 123

.

200

879, 15 & 17. ^

124

13,

158

381, 5. § 129

.

17

381, 10. § 130

15

,158

387, 6. § 148

,

15

387, 17. § 149 .

199

388, 4. § 150

#

14

388, 9. § 151 .

27

388, 17. § 151

,

165

390, 5. § 156 .

64

392, 13. § 163

.

202

396, 30. § 177

24,

160

402, 8. § 195

193

409, 25. § 221 .

188

410, 18. § 223

•

199

410, 28. § 223.

23

412, 21. § 229

31,

197

416, 7. § 240

182,

183

416, 11. § 240

166

419, 28. § 250 .

74

434, 6. § 289

,

86

439, 3. § 305 .

15

439, 29. § 309

»

141

441, 21. § 312.

59

460, 27. § 342

•

60

De Pace.

62, 10. § 20 •

L99,

201

De Chersonese

k. 90, 1. § 1 .

,

98

92, 21. § 11 .

198

98, 25. § 35

.

205

99, 14. § 38 .

79

De Symmoriis.

178, 17. § 2

,

44

182, 3. § 14. .

225

De Rhodiis.

p. 197, 9. § 23

. 88

De Megalopo

I.

p. 202, 24. § 4

. 52

203, 12. § 5 .

52

207, 5. § 19

. 75

In Leptinem

p. 495, 20. § 127

'. 221

490, 8. § 129 .

113

505, 9. § 157

. 74

505, 19. § 158 .

193

In Midiam.

p. 522, 18. § 24

196

525, 3. § 33

98

625, 11. § 34

. 27

530, 10. § 49 .

214

635, 15. § 64

126

536, 1. § 66

161

536, 25. § 69

123

548, 17. § 104.

151

648, 20. §104 .

161

548, 24. § 105 .

168

563, 26. § 151 .

77

582, 2. § 209 .

210

682, 15. § 211 .

181

In Androtionen

3.

p. 593, 14. §2

151

696, 17. § 11 .

72

598, 20. § 17

113

600, 5. § 22 .

137

611, 10. § 59

151

613, 3. § 64 .

183

In Aristocraten

i.

p. 623, 11. §7 . -

19, 73

624, 20. § 12

162

627, 21. § 22 .

209

629, 2. § 26

193

635, 15. § 48 .

127

638, 25. § 58

232

640, 10. § 62 .

74

641, 9. § 64

228

659, 15. § 117 .

37

676, 12. § 167 .

202

683, 22. § 188

197

688, 27. § 205 .

201

In Timocratem

p. 702, 26. §9

199

711, 8. § 35 •

118

721, 6. § 64

22

733, 20. § 106 .

75

In Aristog. I.

p. 773, 1. §11

87

In Aphobum.

I, p. 813, 4. §1

205

813, 20. § 1

205

814, 4. § 3

123

828, 23. § 48

49

I, p. 828,25,26. §49

829, 28. \ 52 .

830, 8. § 53 .

831, 5. | 56
831, 10-12. §56

62

833, 12-19. § 63

834, 18. § 66 .
834, 24, 25. § 67

II,

. 837, 10. § 5 .
837, 11. § 6
839, 29. § 14 .
842, 9. § 20
842, 14, 16. §21

29,
152
104
120
165
69,
158

95
155
104,
123
218

72
218
176
49,
104
128
123

72
204

842, 16. § 21 .
Ill, p. 846, 15. § 5
849, 24. § 17
852, 12. § 25

In Onetorem I.

p. 865, 24. § 7 . 163

867, 1. § 10 . 20

869, 9 & 10. § 19 153,

164

869, 12. § 20 153, 239

869, 18. § 20 .50

870, 11. § 23 . 151
870, 27. § 25 . 161
873, 8. § 33 . 24
873, 10. § 33 . 211

In Zenothemin.
p. 886, 1. § 14 . 34, 222

In Apatnrmm.
p. 900, 22. § 25 . 199
903, 22. § 34 . 142

In Phaenippum.
p. 1040, 20. § 5 . 40

In Olvmpiodorum.
p. 1172, 1. § 16 . 165

In Timotheum.
p. 1194, 13. § 35 . 165
1194, 20. §35 68,158
1201, 19. § 58 . 101

In Polvclem.

p. 1210, 5. § 12 . 224

1223,20,21. §55 29,

151, 239

1227, 2. § 67 . 165

De Coron. Trieraroh.
p. 1228, 28. § 3 . 98

In Eubulidem.

p. 1299, 4. § 1 . 230

1300, 8. § 3 . 58

1303, 2 § 14 . 160

246

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

p. 1303, 22. $ 1ft . 163

1303, 25. § 16 27, 128
1312, 17. § 44 20, 106

1319, 8. § 65 . 34

1320, 25. $ 70 . 105

DtNARCHUS.

InDemostk. p. 91,24 72

Euclid

1, 9

. 21

Euripides.

Alcest. 11

. 199

52 .

106

671 .

26, 108

755 .

, 11, 108

758 .

. 142

784 .

150

801

. 208

1072 .

176

Androm. 61 .

. 86

333

179

757 .

. 185

929

106

Bacch. 343 .

. 186

719

183

Cycl. 131

. 179

Elect. 126 .

175

335 .

. 214

484 .

56

962

. 179

967 .

37

1039

. 184

1061 .

176

1124 .

. 38

Hecub. 112

231

730 .

. 205

836

175

839 .

. 62

863

93

1042 .

. 183

1056

182

1099 .

. 182

1138

81

Heracl. 248 .

. 85

451

179

731 .

. 136

791

86

Here. Far. 538

7

605 .

212

746

. 33

1059 .

180

1417

183

Hippol. 346

190

393 .

30

667

180

606 .

. 186

1307

219

1410 .

174

Ion. 1560 .

5

Iph. Aul. 462

33

1,36

69

1478 .

204

37 .

107

Iph. Taur. 688

224

39

98, 99

995

86

42

43

1014

31

44

. 169

1108

5

44 .

172

1203

179

44

. 227

Med. 1

177

61 .

207

33 .

229

63

6

79

211

67 .

142

90 .

229

68

7

941

62

68 .

172

1151 (1120)

186

, 1S7

69

7

1173

145

75 .

69

1320 .

. 37

77 .

. 227

Orest. 379 .

141

82 .

228

418 .

#

135

88

. 150

680 .

221

84 .

227

746 .

.

227

85

5

769 .

233

89 .

195

770 .

,

80

94

. 193

1132 .

119

99 .

69

1529

.

31

116

. 29, 151

Phoeniss. 92

84

129 .

193

504 .

.

217

136

. 145

895

184

153 .

208

1590

185

165

. 81

1624 .

220

165 .

212

Suppl. 1066 .

185

171

. 131

10S4

119

187 .

94

Troad. 874

203

190

. 223

199 .

209

184
. 202

Aeg. Frag. 5 .
Alcmen. *rag. 103

104

194

II, 2 . .

211

Beller. " 294

92

13

. 47, 131

Ino, " 417

126

15 .

207

" " 424

45

25

. 207

Hippol. " 442

72

64 .

193

" 443

220

66

. 225

Frag. Incert. 1057

46

115 .

171

121

. 164

Herodotus.

125 .

207

1, 1

210

135

. 141

2 .

113

143 .

142

8
9
9

•

219

5

74

146
150 .

. 219
131

158

. 219

9

85

162 .

33

11

^

180

172

. 193

22

14

III, 26

230

24

,

210

36 .

. 74

25

151

65

193

30

.

14

62 .

. 1S5

31

29,

151

75

20

31

141

83 .

. 140

32 .

104

105

193

32

.

145

108 .

. 193

32 .

209

115

170

33

.

141

119 .

48

34 .

215

138

194

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

247

in, 139

.

•

7

I, 60

IV, 46

133

61 .

78

•

. 48

66

118

35

81

118

.

. 97

82

118

184

107 .

136

•

#

. 227

118

156

169

120 .

184

•

.

. 206

128

V,25 .

204

132 .

49

•

a

. 224

135

101 .

201

136 .

VI, 9

•

•

. 200

137

12

195

139 .

23

•

m

. 218

150

27

130

151 .

45

•

•

. 146

159

49

169

161 .

60

•

•

. 227

163

104

218

166 .

108

•

•

. 212

174

136

223

178 .

VU, 5

•

a

. 174

191

10

146

193 .

10

•

.

. 228

218

18

138

231 .

53

•

a

. 184

232

54

146

242 .

111

•

.

. 227

244

153

140

255 .

154

a

#

. 204

258

158

228

262 .

168

#

.

. 233

302

213

165

322 .

220

•

•

. 31

324

235

81

338 .

VIII, 22

.

a

. 121

344

35

19

35S .

100

.

.

. 199

363

143

211

408 .

IX, 12

.

m

. 199

432

91

228

437, 439

57

,

•

. 219

465

61

HE!

ilOD.

19

493 .
498

Op. 1

Ho
11

•

UEK.

iad.

8

509 .
518
522 .
524

1,8

•

•

. 204

555 ,
558
564 .
580
582 .
586
569 .
601

11 .
13

18 .
20

26 .
27
28 .

•
•
•

•
•

172
. 217

174
. 209

181

. 227

40

29

•

*

. 146

11,3 .

82 .

69

8

56

•

,

. 171

10 .

67,

57,

107

98

115

109

121, 144

196

68

170

102

172

114

77

104, 151

55

. 183

204

. 217

158

. 133

108

66,78

92

, 155

122

, 131

172

. 110

128

, 172

105

. 196

181

, 112

178

104, 182

203

. 71

98

. 180

115

. 25

7

8

122

. 227

143

. 123

68

68, 112

80

78

92

. 114

209

. 221

196

. 215

76

. 178

209

II, 36 .

38

43,45

7

80.

102

106, 107

8

107, 108 .

203

119 .

. 196

127 .

203

139 .

L0, 128, 179

182.

204

214 .

. 204

236.

179

250 .

. 112

252.

77

259 .

. 174

290.

190

322 .

. 143

331.

178

364 .

. 102

381

. 67

435 .

. 180

665 .

228

780 .

. 222

794.

168

Ill, 28 .

. 33

54

182

110 .

. 76

180

48

192 .

. 178

194

197

281 .

. 102

288

104

291 .

. 143

317

155

366 .

. 33

428

177

459 .

. 139

IV 19

175

176 .

. 55

191

138

234 .

. 180

238

128

249 .

. 154

313

175

321 .

. 92

335

168

404 .

. 180

418

179

482 .

. 133

V, 66

19

86 .

58, 101

127

7©

220 .

. 212

228

22

273 .

. 107

298

81

308 .

. 106

311

101

350 .

. 104

388

101

407 .

. 133

248

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

V, 411 . .

. 77

xni, 172 .

210

I, 232 .

433

170

317

. 135

295 .

456 .

. 61

321 .

51

390 .

679

96

329

. 142

392 .

tl, 49 .

. 107

343

129

II, 31 .

128

117

368

. 43

43

146 .

. 137

667

32

54 .

164

175

825

. 175

69.

177 .

. 169

XIV, 247 .

129

Ill .

229

204

261

. 81

158.

258 .

. 143

267

55

374 ?.

329

129

621

. 197

Ill, 19 ' .

350 .

. 177

XV, 70 ,

143

129 .

861

77

196

. 221

205

448 .

123, 182

213 .

104

223 .

459

182

223

6

284

460 .

. 196

688

210

327 .

621

129

701

. 43

359

VH, 28 .

. 105

XVI, 84 .

69

IV, 97 . .

303, 305

7

242

. 68

163

133.

. 175

322 .

. 34,210

171 .

157 .

175

389

. 46

179.

. 209

XVII, 70

101

195 .

VIII, 32 .

170

177

. 45

363

36.

. 67

272

202

477 .

125 .

221

XVIII, 86

. .177

645

130.

. 96

333

6

668 .

366 .

96

XIX, 59

. 177

733

452.

. 210

313

210

735 .

IX, 42 .

207

423

. 210

V, 2

121.

. 181

XX, 26

104

57 .

165 .

139

100

. 210

221 .

167.

. 65

198 .

211

300 .

812 .

130, 131

257

. 211

328 .

820.

. 45

301

68

385 .

897 .

128

XXI, 327

7

465.

500.

. 130

405

204

473 .

519

5

459

. 76

VI, 188 .

,

688.

. 146

522

133

255.

655 .

220

680

. 146

VII, 171 .

684.

. 60

xxn, 317

6

280

702 .

128

389

. 121

VIII, 20 .

704.
X, 5-9 .
100 .
Ill
222 .
437

. 26
132

. 81
176

. 118
197

XXHI, 71

274
626
653-
805

180

. 102

101

656 . 7

35

133 .
147 .
344.
352
451.
523 -r 11

488 .

. 142

XXIV, 253

. 177

579.

XI, 20 . .

204

489

204

IX, 376 .

67-71 .

. 133

761

47

420 .

404

184

Odj

rssey.

475 .

XII, 25 .

69,223

1,40

. 128

554 .

167 - 172

133

47 .

51, 129, 175

X, 175

14c

243 .

. 188

66

. 68

XI, 441 .

245 .

121

76 .

76

648

332.

. 139

94

. 115

XII, 17 .

407 .

32

138 .

204

156

437.

. 146

205

. 76

295

XUL,127 .

63

217 .

127

383

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

249

sin, 209 . . 8

214 . . 133

215 . . 180
365 . . 76
376 . . 77

XIV, 68 . . 177
166 . . 131
181 . . 68
312 . . 68
333 . . 138
372 . . 104
440 . . 174
496 . . 204

XV, 263 . . 180

457 . . 204

458 . . 139
609 . . 182

XVI, 24 . 7
168 . . 180
218 . . 212
437 . . 182

XVII, 21 . . 207
250 . . 71
322 . . 130
362 . 78
475 . . 92
639 . . 56
549 . . 102
693 6

XVIII, 132 . 133
272 . . 123
402 . 210

XIX, 463 . . 226

XX, 121 . . 33

XXI, 194 . . 182
201 . . 175

XXII, 139 . . 180
262 . . 34
414 . . 130

XXIII, 43 . . 146
134 . . 69
309 . . 212

XXIV, 334 . . 69

Hymn, in Apoll. 1 182

Isaeus.

Cleon. § 26 . . 5

Dicaeog. § 12 . 225

Menecl. § 10 . 39, 138

Philoct. § 35 40

I SOCRATES.

Aeginet.
p. 838 D. § 22

Antid.
p. 70, 4 115 .
73, \ 122
119, $ 270

86

196
199
208

>. 311 C. § 7 .
315 A. $ 24

Arch id.
M16 A. 4 1 .
121 A. | 26 .
126 C. i 61
128 C. i 60 .
134 A. § 87
138 A. § 107 .
138 A. $ 108

Areopag.
i. 146 E. § 36
147 B. § 37 .
147 D. § 39

Busir.
i. 230 C. $ 47

Demon.
i. 2 B. § 2 .

5 G. § 17

6 A. § 19 .
9 G. § 33

11 C. §43 •

Evag.
i. 193 D. $ 24
200 C. $ 56 .

Helen.
i. 217 D. § 49

Nicocl.
. 15 B. ^ 3 .
16 C. \ 8
18 A. $ 16 .

22 B. $ 37

23 l>. §45 .

Pac.
. 160 C. ^ 9 .

162 D. § 18

163 A. § 20
186 D. $ 139

Panathen
i. 241 D. § 44
254 A. { 103

Panegyr,

. 43 D. $ 14
44 A. § 16

44 C,

48 B.

49 B.
49 C.
49 E.
65 C.
65 D.

67 C.

68 B.
68 B.

19

38
43
44
45
73

$74
83
86

$ 86

160
198

217
211
206
86
94
104
227

112

203
194

105

19

108

197

10

191

11

17, 222

223

18

105

74

74

118

222

103

26, 103

214

216
141

21
146
145

23
205
139
205
181

23
113
222
227

}. 60 C. § 95 . 31

60 D. § 96 . 35

64 B. (j 113 . 140

70 B. § 142 . Ill

73 D. (j 157 . 115

77 C. § 175 . 220

78 C. § 179 . 222

79 D. § 185 . 140

Philipp.

). 87 A. ^ 23 . . 151

93 C. § 56 . 95

101 A. $ 93 . . 181

104 D. § 110 . 195

109 B. <j 133 . 160

Plataic.

). 303 E. $ 38 . 81

Trapezit.

). 360 C. § 11 . 214

361 D. \ 15 . 169

361 E. $ 16 . 167

363 B. § 22 . 40

Lycurgus.

In Leocrat.

p

154, $ 50 .

230

155, l) 60

83

155, § 61 .

80

Lysias.

In Agorat.

p

131, (j 15 .

168

133, § 45

162

135, § 62 .

88

137, $ 76

88

137, § 78 .

108

139, § 94

118

In Alcib. II.

p

145, § 8 .
De Arist. Bon.

117

p

156, § 51 .

32

157, § 61

123

In Eratosth.

p

121, §14 .

161

123, § 32

100

124, { (48 .

100

127, § 74

163

127, § 76 .

167

De Morte Eratosth.

p

95, § 34 .
Or. Funebr.

18

p

192, § 22 .

162

194, $ 42

194

Or. X.

p

117, § 25 .
Or. XXVIL

167

p. 178, M 8, 9

(9

11*

zou

IN

DEX TO THE

EXAMPLES.

In Philocr.

Apol. 42 A .

. 191

Gorg. 479 A .

. 63

p. 182, § 12 .

. 20

Charm. 156 A

160

479 A

86

182, \ 13

37

163 A

. 84

479 C .

12, 206

164 B

137

481 A

76

Menandeb.

171 E

. 127

482 A.

. 226

Col. Fr. 6

. 46

Cratyl. 385 B

. ■ 178

483 C

189

Frag. Incert 41

19

396 C

. 144

484 D .

. 221

Monos. 45

. 36

396 E

208

486 B

52

387 .

197

401 D

. 21

487 D .

36,74

397 .

. 37

430 E

83

489 C

5

436 B

. 83

499 C .

. 208

MlMNERMUS.

436 B

87

500 C

215

1,2

51, 174

Crit. 43 B .

. 70

602 B .

. 223

Nov. Testam.

44 C .
44 D .

98
. 177

503 A

606 B .

74
. 144

Matth. XI, 3 .

6

45 B .

52

506 C

43

XXVI, 24

97

46 A .

. 22

615 B .

. 74

Luc. IX, 40 .

. 78

46 B .

194

516 E .

94

Jon. XIII, 34

78

47 D .

8

516 E .

. 112

Philemokt-

48 C .

114

617 B

208

Frag. Incert. 29

46

49 A .
49 B .

. 234
36

622 E .

623 E

. 86
218

Pindar

50 A .

. 159

525 E .

. 227

01. XKX), 34

XIII, 92

XIV, 30 .
Pyth. VIII, 20

. 67

50 B .

51 B .

171
. 217

Hipp. Maj.

301 A .

. 20

145

51 E .

14

Ion.

535 B .

139

68
45

52 C .
52 D .

. 14

14

Lach. 194 A .
196 C

. 120
83

IX, 196
Nein. VII, 25
VII, 68

. 211
45

52 D .
Critias, 108 C

. 14
46

Leg

IV, 712 E
V, 736 B

55
22

Isthm. IV, 16

105

Euthydem.

272 E .

. 227

VI, 759 E
X, 902 D

. 209
224

Plato.

275 E

161

XI, 917 E

. 45

A'cib. I, 115 B

224

275 E .

. 223

XII, 959 B

73

Apol. 17 C .

. 181

276 E

161

Lys

210 D .

. 200

17 D.

127

278 D .

. 21

214 E

129

18 C .

. 116

283 C

75

215 B .

. 126

20 B.

168

283 E .

. 222

215 B

129

21 A .

. 151

290 A

113

218 D .

. 84

21 B .

38

295 C .

. 146

Men

.74 B .

119

21 B .

. 151

296 D

174

79 D .

. 231

21 C.

21 D .

22 B.

151

124, 125.

47

-'>A'299 A ( $y-/Z2?
-^ 302 A S~~< 129

^>

89 B .
89 E .
92 C .

73

. 123

129

25 B .

. 88

302 B

142

Menex. 239 B

. 196

25 B

117

302 D .

. 184

245 A .

142

28 E .

. 119

305 D

199

Phaed. 58 A .

5

28 E

203

Euthyphr.

68 E

141

29 A .

. 189

4E .

. 82

69 D.

29, 131

29 C.

56

12 D

101

69 D

144

29 C .

. 207

13 D .

. 61

60 A .

. 171

30 C.

60

14 A

61

60 C .

35

32 D .

. 95

14 C .

. 95

62 C .

. 145

36 B.

222

15 D

. 40, 50

63 A .

217

36 C .

. 40

Gorg. 447 D .

. 101

66 E .

. 233

37 B.

42

450 D

207

68 B

105

37 C .

. 137

457 E .

. 86

70 A.

. 81

39 A.

83

461 E

218

71 C .

198

39 A .

. 206

462 E .

. 83

72 C .

. 51

40 B.

219

476 D

189 J

72 D .

191

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

251

Phaed. 73 A .

94

II, 360 B

140

X, 609 B

g

. 79

84 E

84

360 C .

64

614 A .

20

90 D .

196

365 D

. 206

614 B

. 193

91 G

82

368 B .

80

615 D .

66

91 C .

112

372 E

. 183

620 D

. Ill

95 D

154

374 D .

113

Soph. 242 A

199

98 D .

192

875 C

. 227

Syrup. 173 B

. 196

100 B

6

376 A .

26, 2S

174 D .

193

101 D .

169

376 G

, 36

175 C.

15

102 D

217

379 B .

134

186 B .

226

108 E .

199

Ill, 393 E .

. 40

188 A

. 45

117 E

198

397 D .

37

193 E .

49

Phaedr. 227 D

141

398 A .

. 64

194 D

. 139

228 A .

92

39S B .

139

199 A .

69

228 E

183

408 0 .

. 92

199 D

. 101

228 E .

203

412 A .

38

202 D .

62

229 A

204

412 B .

36

208 D

. 217

230 A .

8

412 D .

129

212 E .

37, 183

232 B

47

415 B .

78

213 D

. 77

232 E .

146

415 G .

32

215 A .

208

251 B

199

415 E .

194

Theaet. 142 A

. 120

257 C.

81

416 G .

138

143 E .

49

263 E

1S3

IV, 427 E .

43

144 B

. 19

266 A .

145

427 E .

200

145 A .

208

276 A

194

430 A .

. 40

145 B

. 85

279 C .

174

433 B .

206

149 G .

205

Phileb. 13 A .

82

433 E .

76

155 A

. 129

15 D

183

439 B .

64

158 B .

232

39 C .

216

439 E .

153

183 E

8

63 A

10

V, 451 A .

82

209 E

31, 188

Politic. 264 A

191

455 B .

156

Theag. 123 B

. 101

302 B .

196

457 C .

ISO

Tim. IS G .

39

Pro tag. 313 A

314 C .

101

473 D .

103

18 E .

. 40

225

VI, 485 C .

208

31 B .

18

316 G

33

489 B .

94

90 E .

. 195

318 D .
320 A

226
211

490 C .
492 E .

193

184

SlMONIDES

328 B .

45

495 E .

197

Frag. 5 .

. 221

329 B
332 D .

107
26

501 C .

502 A .

143
21

Sophocles

335 C

173

508 C, D

137

Aj. 20 .

5

335 D .

173

VII, 515 D.

53

75 , .

186

338 C

207

515 E .

64

122 .

%

. 220

339 C .

221

515 E .

145

281

231

522 A .

8

389 .

. 61

De Eepublica.

VIII, 549 B

129

403

183

I, 827 C .

115

549 E .

78

496 .

.

. 105

327 C .

232

553 A

21

536

25

328 C .

228

557 B .

129

650 .

,

. 174

329 A .

220

561 G

233

655

144

330 A .

157

561 E .

. 21

660 .

. 184

337 A .

163

664 C

74

667

78

337 A .

78

556 B .

194

572 .

. 37

337 E .

78

567 A

69

674

45

339 A

78

568 B .

. 221

715 .

m

. 172

841 B .

184

IX, 573 C .

14

986

68

352 E .

64

580 B .

. 183

1082 .

m

. 46

354 B .

201

X, 595 B .

208

1221

52

LI, 358 B

115

595 C

233

1334 .

%

. 181

358 C .

221

607 C .

21

1335

20S

252

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

Aj. 1418

. 211

Antig. 22

.

202, 229

41

78, 150

44

■

225

61

. 149

69

#

62

76

a 92

91

•

128

97

. 205

98

.

92

178

. 132

185

•

111

223

170

240

•

111

242

. 231

272

•

155

278

. 84

872

•

136

375

. 126

390

a

60

443

a 202

444

•

113

484

a 93

534

•

178

544

. 202

647

a

228

680

. 130

605

# ,

106

666

. 135

678

• i

234

685

. 170

710

•

109

1063

a 231

1168

•

179

1173

32, 191

1253

•

84

1255

a 110

1339

. ,

113

Elect. 81

. 183

333

a

62

637

. 113

697

,

134

1029

. 184

1052

a

185

1172

. 141

1205

.

68

Oed.Col. 12 .

. 204

16

208

36 a

a 211

49

202

52 .

. 122

83

224

84 .

. 172

170

183

174 .

. 181

176 .

185

271 .

. 141

810

182

442 .

a 191

665

199

Oed. Col. 667
731
761
816
848
956
1040
1180
1442
1528
1713
Oed Tyr. 9
129
283
364
395
605
643
548
660
637
661
736
796
834
840
918
956,
1146
1157
1281
1232
1245
1293
1368
138'
139
Phil. 75
103.
253
281.
300
325.
849
381.
415
444 .
493
519.
626
U39.
667
694.
611
617.
674

674, 676
761
825.
917

959

199
181

68

44
185

37

27

77
105

63
176
195
199
202

67
159
145
179
170
215
186
183
146
138
27, 143

20
172
231
44, 215
177
133
202
169
205
228
72, 202

72

19
184
231
139
180

52
201

79
231
228

83

77
92, 179
179
231

43
185
154
113
215
183

69
28, 145

Phil

.961

14>

969

17)

978

» •

a

1253

191

1342

103

Trach. 25

81

196

215

197

211

226

201

401

159

645

191

604

78

631

83

687

169

801

181

944

109

973

184

978

185

1129

81

1183

186

1233

32

Hippon. Fr

280 .

172

Theocritus.

Id. I

,4 .

-

102

Theognis.

Vs.

L26 .

a .

145

'

L53

» •

5

Thcctdides.

1,1

.

# .

219

2

a

, a

17

2

•

a #

226

2

a

i •

194

3

,

. #

15

3

a

m

223

4

,

a ,

198

5

«

•

150

9

•

• •

94

9

•

a

113

10

•

•

34

10

•

. Ill

223

11

•

• a

137

12

a

, .

17

12

a

a *

34

16

a

190

199

21

„

a ,

130

21

.

, ,

208

22

.

a

128

23

a

a

31

24

a

a •

31

25

. ,

.30

156

27

a

, ,

42

28

. ,

a

112

31

•

• t*

70

35

» «

a

126

36

,

• •

215

39

• 4

•

211

41

•

• •

241

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

253

1,45

. 167

H, 2 . 151

III, 33

170

50

206

8 ... 33

34 .

. 42

67

. 75

3 70

40

117

68 .

162

4 . 155

40 .

. 161

68

. 170

4 190

49

194

62 .

199

4 . 203

49 .

. 199

63

. 155

6 . . . 162

63

81

65 .

70

6 (2 examp.) . 167

53 .

. 84

65

. 75

7- . . . 220

70

75

68 .

211

8 . .22

74 .

. 99

69

. 159

11 . 60

76

200

69 .

211

12 203

80 .

. 81

70 .

27, 45, 109

12 . . 211

83

81

70 .

34

13 . . 11, 151

88 .

. 213

72

8

13 . . . 204

89

69

73 .

. 68, 199

13 211

89 .

. 126

74 .

. 224

16 . 7

98

137

76 .

69

18 . . 35, 229

102 .

. 206

76 .

. 62

20 . 35,59,158,229

114

206

76 .

199

21 . . 167, 172

IV, 4 .

. 190

79 .

8

24 . 168

13

165

81 .

234

32 13

17 .

. 133

83

. 123

34 (2 examp.) 27, 130

24

33

86, 88 .

234

37 109

28 .

14, 158

90

38, 64, 150

39 . 219

28

158

90 .

143

40 160

29 .

. 226

90

. 151

41 . 62

36

208

91 .

. 6, 167

42 . .42

42 .

. 168

91

. 161

44 . . . 203

43

219

91 .

170

45 . .46

67 .

. 190

91

. 193

49 . 61

71

43

95 .

167

49 200

95 .

. 224

99

. 131

63 . . 195

113

227

101 .

36

66 . . 191, 197

115 .

. 42

103

. 140

59 . . 220

121

42

108 .

36

60 . .80

125 .

. 225

Ill

. 218

60 . 117

128

76

113 .

140

60 172

133 .

34, 227

114

. 224

60 . . . 229

V, 9 .

61

115 .

36

61 126

9 .

. 209

116

. 217

61 . . . 194

10

211

116 .

224

62 130

18 .

. 209

117

. 36

63 . 61

30

224

118 .

31

64 . .44

35 .

. 42

120

. 224

64 . . 132

35

226

121 .

88

65 137

49 .

. 164

125

. 224

67 . . 167

56

224

126 .

31

72 154

63 .

. 193

126

. 68

80 . 60

64

, 214

128 .

214

89 . .46

82 .

. 60

129

. 19

92 . 25

102

215

131 .

112

93 . .83

105 .

82. 85

132

. 145

102 . . . 13,193

VI, 2

6

134 .

154

III, 1 . . . 201

2 .

. 82

137

6

4. 74

4

211

137 .

143, 162

11 . . 68

6 .

. 42

138

. 208,216

22 . 71

9

10

140 .

66

26 . 42

16 .

6

142 .

. 117

28 . . . 42, 160

16

47

142 .

215

82 . 165

17 .

. 21

254

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

VI, 18 .

. 63

VII, 70 . .

23

18

190, 199

70.

. 191

20 .

6

71 .

47, 109

20

174

72.

. 23

21 .

. 105

77 .

87

25

233

80 .

. 164

29 .

. 169

84 .

31, 197

30

61

85 .

. 219

31 .

7

VIII, 9 .

169

31

74

25.

. 60

37 .

. 69

45 .

226

38

60

65.

. 42

50 .

. 203

65 .

234

60

234

66 .

. 108

54 .

78, 192

8,214

67

42

70. .

. 195

68 .

. 211

71 .

60

59 . ,

216

74. . .42

61 .
61

. 34
42

Ttrtaeus.

61 .

. 146

XII, 35 . . . 109

61

165

Xenophon.

66 .

74

75 .

77

78 .

82

88 .

96

96 .
100
102 .

. 60

, 7

. 32

6

. 98

208

. 206

36

. 71

115

. 158

Anabasis

I, 1, 1 • •

1.2 .
1, 3 .

1.3 .

1, 5 .
1,6 .
1, 10 .

2, 1 . .
2, 1 .

2,2

6
25

. 25
220

. 132
223

. Ill
218

. 220
33

Fi\ 1

111

2,21.

. 152

2 .

. 34

3, 6

62

5

87

3, 6 .

63, 232

6 .

23, 61

3, 8

220

10

109

3,14.

. 229

11 .

. 42

3, 15 .

232

13

111

3, 17 .

. 35

16 .

. 232

3, 17 .

. 52, 86

17

87

4, 7 .

115, 16S

21 .

. 42

4, 12 & 13

162

23

213

4,18

. 70

24 .

. 219

4, 18 .

150

27

167

5, 9 .

. 231

28 .

. Ill

6, 13 .

23

34

206

6, 2 .

. 199

39 .

. 80

6, 8

171

42

59

7, 3 .

. 79

44 .

. 224

7,3 .

218

46

43

7, 7 .

. 155

47 .

. 159

8, 12 .

19

48

134

8,13.

. 75

60 .

. 211

9, 10 .

166

66

42

9,13.

. 132

69 .

. 168

9,21 .

67

60

168

9,27.

. 132

61 .

. 61

10,4

220

67

75

10,5 .

11, 155

I, 10, 6

228

10, 9 .

. 81

10,16

158

10, 16

. 160

10, 17

155

II, 1, 3 .

. 152

1,4

95

1,6 .

. 204

1,8

15ti

1,10.

, 146, 157

1,21

232

1,23 .

151

2, 12

184

2,21 .

. 11, 151

3, 6

163

3,10.

. 206

3,11 .

201

3,13 .

. 194

3, 18

. 58, 158

3,19 .

. 159

3, 20 .

33

3,24.

. 143

3,25

141

3,29 .

27, 128

4,6

44

4,6 .

. 214

4,17

. 26, 67

4,19.

. 117

4,22

29

4,22.

. 214

5, 13

66

5,14 .

. 64

6, 16

69

5,27 .

. 162

5,27

230

6,12 .

. 28, 131

6,21

. 10, 67

III, 1,2

. 154

1,13

199

1,14

. 43

1, 16

146

1,20

. 199

1,38

29

1, 38

. 52

1,40

29

2,9

. 161

2, 10

223

2,25

. 26

2,27

. 9, 67

2, 29

. 25

2,36

62

3, 12

. 152

4,8

142

4,29

. 81

4,49

122, 142

6,3

. 81

5,7

206

5, 11

. 199

5, 13

152

6,18

167

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

255

IV, 1, 5 ,

194

1,4,23 .

. 146

V, 2, 12 .

82,85

1,6 .

. 81

4,25

.

2,22 .

219

2,4 .

142

5, 12 .

. 197

3, 13 .

. 61

2, 10

. 110

6, 13

128

3,27 .

103

4,6 .

207

6, 14 .

. 74

3, 55 .

29, 130

5,13

. 108

6, 3

129

3, 65 .

108

6, 30 .

. 29,145

6,7 .

. 76

4, 17 .

. 40

6, 10

. 75

6,7

138

4,30 .

103

8,7 .

157

6, 10

. 80

4,35.

. 108

8, 14

. 201

6, 18

63

6, 13 .

. 9, 103

V, 1, 1 .

161

6, 18 .

. 227

6,21.

. 121

1,9

. 117

6, 19

135

5,34 .

94

2,17 .

162

6, 22 .

. 52

VI, 1, 21 .

. 43

3, 1 . .

. 126

6,28

160

1,26 .

225

4, 16 .

223

6, 32 .

. 201

1,40

. 20{'<

6, 3 .

. 223

II, 1, 8 .

28,105

2, 30 .

85

6,22 .

79

1, 9 .

. 119

2,39

. 14

7, 6 .

. 145

1,21 .

68

3, 19 .

207

7,26 .

. 20, 81

1, 30

. 137

4,17 .

. 205

VI, 1, 17 .

. 76

1,31 .

129

VII, 1, 10 .

. 47, 131

1, 19 .

7

2,3 .

. 68

2, 19 .

. 150

1,25

. 163

2,8 .

167

3, 3 .

171

1,26 .

166

2, 9 .

. 167

3,7 .

. 167

1,28

. 83

2, 16 .

220

3, 13 .

184

1,29 .

157

2, 20

. 224

3, 17 .

. 77

4,9.

. 126

3, 6

27

5,6 .

142

6,6 .

132

4,7 .

29, 150

6,73 .

. 214

6, 24

. 230

4,10 .

135

6, 81 .

69

6, 25 .

161

4,12.

. 68

5, 82 .

. 31

vn, 1, 2

. 218

4,17 .

62

6, 82 .

80

1,7 .

203

4,23 .

. 199

VIII, 1,5 .

. 179

1,16

. 162

4,31 .

138

1, 10

40

1,33 .

39

Ill, 1, 1 .

. 86

1, 10 .

. 161

3,11

9, 103

1,1 .

113

1,43

. 40, 74

3,13 .

154

1,3.

39, 161

1,44 .

75, 144

3,43

. 35

1,8 .

68, 171

2,21

110

4,2 .

69

1,9.

. 199

2, 25 .

. 195

6,21

. 97

2,1

163

3, 5 .

196

7,11 .

. 11,105

. 2,8.

. 184

3,42 .

. 189

7,31

. 81

2,12 .

211

4,16

155, 156

7,55 .

164

2, 13

77, 103

6, 12 .

. 137

Cyropaei
1,1,2 . .
2,1

2,1 . .
2, 2

lia.

. 130
. 32, 158

. 205
. 45,109

2, 15

2, 25

218
. 216

6,28
7,15 .

224
. 86

2,26
3,31

41

. 199

7,23
7,25 .

114

. 62

3, 60

211

7,27

206

2, 8 .

. 145

IV, 1, 1

. 163

Helled

ca.

2,8

206

1, 18

77

1, 1, 16 .

. 223

2, 16 .

. 94

2,7

. 22

6,7.

162

3,1

197 218

3,10

211

6, 32 .

. 185

3, 3 .

. 219

3, 11

. 206

7,5. .

153

3, 5&6

210

8,15

33

7, 26 .

. 221

3, 9 .

. 210

4,4

11, 152

7,28

203

8,11

143

6, 15

206

II, 1, 4 . .

. 151

3, 18 .

. 83

5,37

. 144

1,6

217

4,2

81

6,46

197

3, 2 . 3

9, 137, 138

4,7 . .

. 168

V, 1, 3 .

227, 228

3, 11 .3

9, 138, 207

4, 13

155

1,25

202

3, 51 .

. 130

4, 14

145, 168

2, 9 .

. 81

4,1 .

225

4,21 .

168

2,9

212

4, 8 .

. 206

256

INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.

in 1,20

•

1G5

2,6

•

. 164

2,13

•

226

2, 19

•

. 225

2,20

•

143, 168

3, 6

•

. 202

3, 9

a

76

6, 9

•

. 208

6,10

•

86

IV, 1, 36

•

. 199

1,38

•

10

1,38

•

29, 174

4,16

•

203

7,3

•

. 160

8,2

•

162

8, 16

•

. 70

8,23

•

206

V 1,14

i

. 203

1,18

•

178

1,19

•

. 214

2,2

i

162

2,29

•

. 15

2,32

•

161

2,86

•

. 191

4,7

•

23

4,7

•

. 33

4,8

•

161

4,9

•

. 223

VI, 1,6

•

132

1,14

•

. 86

4,6

•

161

4,26

•

. 219

4,27

•

40

vn,i, 23

•

. 160

1,34

•

152

1,34

•

. 164

1,35

•

150

1,38

•

. 153

2,9

•

203

8,7

•

. 135

4,34

,

161

4,37

•

. 142

4,39

•

155

6,3

•

. 40

Memorabilia.

X 1,6

•

94

1,13

•

. 168

1, 16

•

69

2,1

•

. 205

8,8

•

198

M

•

. 169

II,

m,

2,7 .

67

2,7

. 168

2,18 .

17

2, 20

. 225

2,22 .

217

2, 36

. 183

2,46 .

176

2, 65

. 197

2,63 .

215

3, 3

. 165

3, 6 .

207

4, 19

. 172

5,2 .

203

6,3

87, 107

6,4 .

129

6, 9

. 196

7,2 .

234

7,3

. 129

1, 15 .

197

1, 16

. 199

1, 17 .

. 37, 93

1, 18

. 129

1,25 .

185

2,3

31, 141

2,3 .

134

3,3

. 225

3, 4 .

172

3,9

. 192

3, 12 .

129

6,2

. 126

6,29 .

161

6,32

. 223

7,10 .

98

7, 13

. 141

9,2 .

82

9,2

. 129

10,2 .

68

1,3

. 223

2,1 .

74

2,3

9,67

3,3 .

178

3,11

192, 197

6, 1 .

183

6,6

. 130

6,24 .

228

6,3

. 233

6, 16 .

82

8, 8

. 196

8,10 .

207

11,1 .

. 234

12,6 .

205

13,3

196, 206

u

IV,,,

2,4

2,6

2,10

2, 12

2,20

2,30

2, 32

2,35

2,39

2,40

3,3

4,4.

4,4

4, 12

4, 16

4,17

6,7

6,7

6, 13

8, 2.

8,7

Ages.

11,31
IV, 1
IV, 6
IX, 2

XI, 3
Apol. § 14 .
Cyneg. Ill, ft
Hier. VIII, 3

XI, 15

Hipp. IX, 2

Oecon. 1, 2

IV, 4

VII, 6

VII, 20

VII, 39
VIII, 8

XII, 19
XIII, 4
XV, 2.
XX, 8

Rep. Ath. I, 16
Rep. Lac. XIV,
Symp. II, 11
111,3
IV, 6
IV, 26
VII, 2

VIII, 26

213

. 80

78

. 214

30

. 83

129

. 232

134

. 46

80

II, 108

18

. 59

216

. 156

68

. 190

11

. 61

47, 109

. 197

172

. 16?

207
. 168

137
. 109

178
. 196

179

. 184

77

. 188

183
. 74

139
. 52

172
. 207

191
. 163

77
. 127

36
. 81

202
. 172

214
. 76

74

ENGLISH INDEX.

N. B. The figures refer to Paget.

Absolute, Genitive, 222, 225, 232 ; Accusa-
tive, iil, Xlb.

Antecedent, definite or indefinite, 121, 122,
123 - 125.

Aorist, Indicative, 24. Distinguished from
Imperf., 7, 8, ?4 Of verbs denoting a
state or condition, 24. Used for Perf.
or Pluperf., 25. Expressing a momen-
tary action just taking place, 25. In
epistles, 25. In Final clauses, 72. In
Protasis and Apodosis (implying non-
fulfilment of condition), 93 - 102 ; how-
distinguished from Imperf., 94, 96 (6) ;
how from Pluperf., 96 (6). With av in
Apod., 56, 93-96; rarely referring to
present time, 101. Gnomic, 45 ; with ttoA-
Aokcs or fj&r], 46 ; in Horn, similes, 46 ; a
primary tense, 49 ; see Aor. Inf. Itera-
tive, w. av, 47 ; iterative forms in -ctkov,
-o-ko/xt)!/ (w. av, in Hdt.), 47, 48.

, in dependent moods, 25 - 36. How

distinguished from Present, 8 (R.). See
Contents, Chap. II. ; and Subj., Opt.,
Imperat., and Infin.

, Subjunctive, 26 - 28. As Fut. Perf.,

after iireiidv, &c, 26. How distinguished
from Perf. Subj., 28. With aij in pro-
hibitions, 180. With oi> /u.7J, 184.

-, Optative, 28 - 30. After eVe^i;, &c,

sense, 46, 47. With av in apodosis, 68,
113, 114, 157 ; see 'Av.

-, Participle, 34 - 36. With \av9dvu,

29. In indirect quotations and questions,
29, 30 ; ambiguity of, in indirect ques-
tions, 30.

Imperative, 30. Rarely used in

prohibitions (for Aor. Subj.), 181.

, Infinitive, with, indef. time, 30-32.

After xpau, Oncr-nlC,!!}) &c, 31 ; see Pres-
ent. After aiTtds ei/u, 32. In indirect
quotation, referring to the past, 32, 33.
Used for the Future : after verbs of
hoping, promising, &c, 32 ; after verbs
of thinking, saying, las., 33. After \<syio
and elirov, to command, 34. Primary
or secondary tsrsse, 53. In a gnomic

tj>9dvu, &c , coinciding with the verb in
time, 34 ; with nepiopdu>, &c, 35. With
buoXoyiio, 36. With e^co, as periphras-
tic Per., 229. With ea-0/j.ai., as peripnr.
Fut. Perf., 44. Primary or secondary
tense, 64. As protasis, equiv. to Aor.
Ind., Subj., or Opt., 110, 217. With av
in apodosis (never in protasis), 59, 113,
114, 159 ; see 'Ac.

Apodosis, defined, 87, 125 ; see Protasis.

Assimilation in conditional Relative clauses,
135, 136.

Causal sentences, 171 - 173 ; see Contents,
Chap. IV, Sect. V. Introduced by Rela-
tives, 141 ; negative particle in, 142.
Expressed by Participles, 216 ; by Part
w. w5, 219, 220.

Caution, verbs of; see Fear.

Conditional sentences, 110 - 121 ; see Con-
tents, Chap. IV, Sect. n. Cond. Rela-
tive sentences, 125 - 137.

Danger, expressions of ; see Fear.

Dative after Verbals in -tcos, 233, 234.

Dependence of moods and tenses, 48-
54.

Direct Quotations, distinguished from indi-
rect, 147 ; introduced by on, 171.

Exhortations, Imperative in, 178. Subj. in,
179. Opt. in (poet.), 175. Fut. Did. in,
W. ojtws (BC. cKOjrei), 78, 79.

Fear, caution, and danger, expressions
of, 80 - 87. Followed by n*rj w. Subj. or
Opt., 80, see Object clauses ; by a-q w.
Fut. Ind. (seldom), 82 ; by urj w. Pres.
and Past tenses of Indie, 83 - 85 ; by uit
or oiru: w. Indie, (as in indir discourse),

258

ENGLISH INDEX.

85 ; by Fat. Inf., 85 ; by ei, whether,
on-cus, how, &c, 85 ; by a causal sentence
with 6ti, 86 ; by Infin., 86, 87, 190.

Final clauses (pure), after Eva, <o?, ottos,
b<f>pa, and /Li.ij, 67 - 73 ; distinguished from
object clauses, &c, 66, 67. Subj. and
Opt. in, 67. Fut. Ind. in, 68. Subj. in,
after secondary tenses, 70. Secondary
tenses of India in, 72. ' Av or kc iu :
with Subj.. 69 ; w. Opt., 69, 70.

Final and Object clauses w. brrw? and otto)?
jurj, after verbs of striving, effecting, &c,
73-80. Fut. Ind. in, 73, 74. Subj. or
Opt. in, 73, 74 ; Fut. Opt. 74, 39. 'Ot7co?
dv w. Subj. in, 76. Homeric construction
in, 76, 77. Mtj (without bn-co?) in, 77. 'fl?
for o7rui? in, 77. After verbs of exhort-
ing, forbidding, &c , 77, 78 ; rarely intro-
duced by ira, 78 ; see 'iva. °07tio? or
o7rio? llij w. Fut. Ind., by ellipsis of the
leading verb, 78 (N. 7, a) ; /xij alone in
prohibitions, 79 (N. 7, b). Second Aor.
Subj. Act. and Mid. preferred in, 79 ;
Dawes's Canon, 79, 80. See Object clauses
after /nrj.

Finite moods, 1.

Future, Indicative, 36-38. In gnomic
sense, 36. Expressing a general truth
hereafter to be recognized, 36. Like mild
imperative, 37. In prohibitions w. jut),
37, 79. In Final clauses, w. 07710?, otppa,
/j.rj, 68. With 07710? or 67710? /ir/, after verbs
of striving, effecting, &c. 73. With ottco?
or 0770)? (u.?;, in exhortations and prohibi-
tions (sc. o-KoVei.), 78. With /xi), after verbs
of fearing, 82. In Protasis w. ei : ex-
pressing a future condition, 103 ; expr. a
present intention, &c, 93. In Eel. clauses
expr. a purpose, 137. With ou ixrj, 184 -
187. With dv : in Ilomer, 55 ; in Attic,
56. Periphrastic form of, w. /xeAAu), 38.

, Optative, in indirect quotation, 38.
After 07ru)? or 6t7co? ju.17, 39-41, 73, 74.

. Infinitive, 41 - 43. After verbs of

spying, thinking, &c.,in indirect quota-
tion, 41. For Pres. or Aor. Inf., after
verbs of wishing, &c, after u>o-re, and
even in other constructions, 42. Regu-
larly used after verbs of hoping, &c, 43.
With dv (rarely), 60. Primary or second-
ary tense, 63.

-, Participle, 43. Expressing a pur-

pose, 217, 214. With av (rarely), 60.
Primary or secondary terse, 53.
Future Perfect, Indicative, 42-46. Com-
pound forms of: Perf. Part. w. ea-op-ai,
44 ; rarely Aor. Part w. ecro/iai, 44, 216.

Often nearly = Fut., 44 In the depend
ent moods, 44.

General and particular suppositions, how

distinguished, 88, 89.
Genitive Absolute, 222, 225, 232.
Gnomic Aorist and Perf. See Aor. and

Perf.

Hindrance, verbs implying, w. Infin., 198-

202. See Infinitive.
Hoping, promising, &c, verbs of, w. Fut

Infin., 43 ; w. Pres. Infin., 14 ; w. Acr

Inf., 32, 33.

Imperative, 2. Tenses of, see Present, Per-
fect, &c. Not used w. dv, 67. In com-
mands, exhortations, &c, 178 ; w. aye,
4>epe, 161, 178 ; second person w. 7ra?, 179.
After o'o-ff 6, &c, 179. In prohibitions
w. /ur) (Present, rarely Aor.), 180, 181.

Imperfect, 6-8. Distinguished from Aor.,
7, 8, 24. Denoting attempted action, 7.
In sense of Pluperf. (when Pres. = Perf.),
7. Sometimes not distinguished from
Aor., 7, 8. Expressing past likelihood,
intention, or danger, 7. Expressing a
fact just recognized, 8. In Final clauses,
72. In Protasis or Apodosis (implying
non-fulfilment of condition), 93-102;
how distinguished from Aor., 94, 96 (b) ;
how from Pluperf., 96 (6) ; in Horn, usu-
ally past, 96. With dv, in Apodosis, 66,
93-96. Iterative, w. av, 47 ; iterative
forms in -ctkoi' and -o"ko/xt>i' (w. dv, in
Hdt.), 47, 48. How expressed in Infin.
and Part. (Imperf. Inf. and Part.), 15,
17. How expressed in Optative (Imperf.
Opt.), 153.

Indicative, 1. Tenses of, see Present, &c.
Primary and secondary tenses of, 3, 49,
50. With dv, see 'Av. Fut., in Final
and Object clauses after bVco?, &c. ; see
Future. Secondary tenses of, in Final
clauses, 72. Present and past tenses of,
after ixij, lest, 83 - 85. Present and past
tenses of, in Protasis, 92. Secondary
tenses of, in both Protasis and Apodosis
(ap in Apod.), 93 - 102 ; see 'Av. Fut. :
in Protasis, 103 ; in Apodosis, 102. Foi
Subj. in general suppositions, 109. Aftei
Relative w. definite antecedent, 122. Id
causal Rel sentences, 141. In condi
tional Rel. sentences : present and past
tenses, 125 ; secondary tenses (implying
non-fulfilment of a condition). 126. Foi
Subj. and Opt. in general supposition*

ENGLISH INDEX.

259

•Sttr Rel 1 131. In Kel. sentences after a
general negative, 132. Secondary tenses
of, in cond. Rel. sentences, by assimila-
tion, 136. Future after Rel., expressing
a. purpose, 137. Fut. after <f<£' £ and
i(f>' wTe, 140. After uicrre, 140. After
ecus, &e, until, 142 ; second, tenses, re-
ferring to a result not attained, 143.
After irpiv, 145 ; distinguished from In-
fm.,144, 145, 210. In indirect quotation
after on and u>s, and in iudir. questions,
149, 150 ; may be retained even after
second, tenses, 151, 152 ; in depend-
ent clauses of indir. quot., 160 - 165. In
causal sentences, 171. Secondary tenses
of, in wishes, 173, 176. Future after ot>
/xrj, 185, 184 ; see Future.

Indirect Questions, 147 ; see Contents,Chap.
IV, Sect. IV.

Indirect Quotation, 147- 171 ; see Contents,
Chap. IV, Sect. IV. Moods used in, see
Itklicative, &c. Tenses used in, see Pres-
ent, &c. ; and Contents, Chap. II.

Infinitive, 2, 188-212. Tenses of, 212;
see Present, &c, and Contents, Chap. II.
With op, see "Av. After verbs of fearing,
86, 87, 190. In Apodosis, 113. Iu indi-
rect quotations, 147, 148, 157 - 159. After
Cxjxkov in wishes, 176, 177. Fut. w. ov
tiri, in indir. quot., 1S5. See Contents,
Chap. V.

Interrogative Subj., 182-184. In indirect
questions, 154.

Iterative Imperfect and Aorist. See Im-
perfect and Aorist.

Moods, general view of, Chap. I. Use of,
Chap. IV. Constructions enumerated, 65;
see Indicative, &c.

Narration, Infin. in, 210.

Object clauses with fiij after Verbs of fear-
ing, &c, 66, 80. Subj. and Opt. in, 80.
Mr; and iir) ov in, 80, 67. How related to
Final clauses, 66, 81. Fut. Ind. in, 82.

'Ottio? fiJ) (= /urj) in, 82. Mr; av W. Opt.
(in Apod.) in, 82, 83. Mr) alone w. Subj.,
by ellipsis of the leading verb, 83. M7J
w. present and past tenses of Indie, in,
83-85, foot-note t to 84. Other construc-
tions allowed in, see Ftar, caution, ar>1
danger.
Optative, 2, 174. Its relations to the Indie,
and Subjunctive., Appendix I. Tenses
of, see Present, &c. ; when primary and
when srconJat u, 50- 53. WithiW, 6:uus,

&c, in pure Fin. clauses, 67. With on-us
and orrux; fx-fj, after verbs of striving, &e,
(seldom), 73, 74. With /m}, after verba
of fearing, &c, 80. In Protasis w. et,
91 : in particular suppositious, 105 ; in
general suppos., 107, 108. In Apodosis
w. av, 57, 105, see'Ar : w. Protasis sup-
pressed, 112 ; as mild command or ex-
hortation, or resembling Fut. Ind., 113.
In conditional Rel. sentences : in par-
ticular suppositions, 128 ; in general
suppos., 129 ; by assimilation, 135. la
Rel. clauses expressing a purpose (Epic,
rarely Attic), 138. After «os, &c, until,
142, 143 ; implying a purpose, 1 13, 166-
168 (d). After irpiv, 145. In indirect
quotations and questions, 148 ; see Con-
tents, Chap. IV, Sect. IV. In rausal
sentences, 172. In wishes, 173, 174 ; ex-
pressing concession or exhortation, 175.
Future, 38 -41 ; rarely w. ov jutj, after ws
in indirect quotation, 185.

Participle, 3, 213-232. Tenses of, see
Present, &c. With av, see'Av. Condi-
tional (as Protasis) representing Indie,
Subj., or Opt., 217, 110. As Apodosis
(with or without av), 113. In indirect
quotation, 159, 229. See Contents, Chap.
VI.

Particular and general suppositions, how
distingui-hed, 88, 89.

Perfect Indicative, 18, 19. Why primary,
18. Compound form of, 18. Of certain
verbs, in sense of Present, 19. In epis
ties, 19. Referring to the future for em-
phasis (oAuAa), 19. Not used w. av, 56.
Gnomic, 45 ; see Perf. Infin.

in dependent moods, relations of to

Pres. of those moods, 19. Subj. and Opt.,
20. Imperat., 21 : in ma.hematical lan-
guage, 21 ; second person of (rare), 22 ,
in sense of Present, 22. Infin., 22 : w.
w4>e\ov in wishes, 176, 177 ; primary or
secondary tense, 53 ; w. av, 59 ; in a
gnomio sense, 47 ; as Pluperf. Infin., 23
(Rem.), 59. Partic, 23 ; primary or sec-
ondary, 53.
Pluperfect, 18, 19. Compound form of, 18.
Of certain verbs, iu sense of Imperf., 19.
Sometimes nearly = Aor. (Horn, and
Ildt.), 19. Expressing past certainty,
&c, 19. In Final clauses, 72. Iu Pro-
tasis and Apodosis, how distinguished
from Imperf. and Aor., 96 (6). With av,
in Apod., 56, 93, 94. How expresied ir
Infin. and Partic, 23 (Rem.)-

260

ENGLISH INDEX.

Present, Indicative, 4. Expressing a gen-
eral truth, 4, 46 ; an attempted action, 6.
With adverbs of past time (as 7rdAcu), 6.
Of certain verbs, in sense of Perf., 5. Of
verbs signifying to hear, to learn, &c,
6. Of eZftt, as Fut., sometimes as Pres.,
6. Expressing likelihood, intention, or
danger, 6. Not used w. dv, 55. Historic,
6 ; a secondary tense, 49.

, in dependent moods, 8-17. How
distinguished from the Aor., 8. See
Contents, Chap. II. ; and Subj., Opt.,
Imperat., and Infin.

, Subjunctive, 9, 10. In Jirst person,

in prohibitions w. /u.77, 180; see Aor. Subj.
With ov m, 184.

, Optative, 10 - 12. In indirect quo-
tations and questions, 11 ; ambiguity in
indirect questions, 12.

, Imperative, 12. In prohibitions w.

nt, 180. See Aor. Subj.

, Infinitive, three uses of, 12. With

indef. time, 12. After XP*M> 6eaitiiu>,
&c, 13. In indirect quotation, 13. For
Fut., after verbs of hoping, &c, 14. Af-
ter Ae-yoj and ei7rov, to command, 14.
As Imperfect Infin., 15, 16. With ov in
Apodosis, 58, 113, 157 ; see "Av. With
av, representing iterative Imperf., 60.
Primary or secondary tense, 53.

— , Participle, 16, 17. As Imperf. Part.,

17. Primary or secondary, 53. As Pro-
tasis (= Pres. Ind., Subj., or Opt.), 110,
217. With av, in Apod, (never in Prot.),
58, 113, 159 ; see 'Av.

Prevention, verbs implying, w. Inf., 198-
202. See Infinitive.

Primary and Secondary tenses, 3, 48 - 54 ;
see Tenses.

Prohibitions, Subj. and Imperat. in, 180 ;
Aor. Imperat. rare in, 181. Fut. Ind. in,
w. 07ras uij or fi>j (sc. (tkottsi), 78. See

OV JU.1J.

Promising, verbs of ; see Hoping.

Protasis and Apodosis, defined, 87. Moods
and tenses in, see indie, &c. ; Present,
&c. ; and Contents, Chap. IV., Sect. II.

Purpose, expressed by Final clause w. iva,
&c, 67 ; by Eelat. w. Fut. Ind., 137 ;
by Kel. w. Subj. and Opt. in Horn, (rare-
ly in Attic), 138 ; by £io; w. Subj. and
Opt., 143, 167, 168 (<*) ; by wore w. In-
fin., 205 ; by Inf. alone, 203 ; by Fut.
Part., 214, 217.

Questions, of doubt, w. first pers. of Subj.
(sometimes w. ,3oi/Aei or fleAet?), 182 ;
rarely w. third person of Subj , 183 : see

Subjunctive. Indirect, 147 ; see Indirect
quotation.
Quotation, see Direct and Indirect.

Relative and Temporal sentences, 121 - 146
see Contents, Chap. IV., Sect. III. Rela
tive with Infinitive, 193.

Secondary, see Tenses.

Similes (Homeric) : Gnomic Aor. in, 46,
133 ; Subj. (without iv) and Pres. Indie,
in, 133.

Subjunctive, 1. Its relations to the Opt.,
Appendix I. Tenses of ; see Pres., Perf.,
and Aor. ; always primary, 50. With
dv or k4, see "Av. With 'Lva, 67™;, &c.
in pure Final clauses, 67: after secondary
tenses, 70. With on-ws and 6™; /urj after
verbs of striving, &c. (seldom), 73.
With /xri after verbs of fearing, &c, 80.
In Protasis w. edv (av, jjv), 90, 91 ; in
particular suppositions, 102; in general
suppos., 107, 108; w. ei (without dv), see
"Av. In Apodosis w. xe or dv (Horn.), 57,
182 ; see 'Av. In conditional Relat. sen-
tences : in particular suppositions, 127 ;
in general suppos., 129; by assimilation,
135. In Homeric similes after d>;, ws otc,
132. In Rel. causes expressing a purpose
(Epic), 138. After eu>s, &c, until, 142,
143 ; implying a purpose, 143, 167, 168
(d). After n-pi'v, 145. In indirect ques- \
tions, representing Iuterrog. Subj., 154, i
155. In indir. quotations, repres. de
pendent Subj., 148, 160; may be changed
to Opt. or retained, after second, tenses,
148, 160, 166. First person of, in exhor
tations, 179; see dye, <f>epe. Aor. in pro-
hibitions w. ju.)j, 180 ; Pres. only in first
person (rarely sing.), ISO, 181. Inde
pendent (like Fut. Ind.) in Horn., 1S1 ;
w. dv or Ke, 182. Interrog. (in questions
of doubt), 182. With ov /*>j, as strong
future, 184.

Temporal sentences, see Relative. With
£w?, &c., until, 142-144. With -rrpiv,
144-147, 210.

Tenses, enumeration of, 3. Primary and
secondary, 3, 48 - 54. Relative or abso-
lute time denoted by, 3, 4. Gnomic and
iterative, 45-48. Use of, see Contents
Chap. II. See also Present, &c.

Verbal in -reo?, 3; see Contents, Chap. VII

Wish, expression of, 173-177 ; see Con-
tents, Chap. IV., Sect. VI. Ind and Opt
in, see Ind. and Opt. Latin and Greek
expressions of, compared, 177. Infin in
(poet.), 209.

GREEK INDEX.

N. B. The figures refer to Paget.

VO

Ayacaxreu ei, 120.
Ayairdu ei, 120.

Aye or aycTe w. Imperat., 178, 179, 180.

'ASiicew as Perf., 6.

Aicrxvvonai with Part, and Inf., 228. Ai-
<TX"vona.\. ei, 120.

Amos eiui, w. Inf. (sometimes w. tou or
to), 190, 191 ; w. Aor. Inf., 32.

'Akov(iv, d/coOo-ai, in sound, 196.

'AAioxo/uai as Perf., 5.

'AAAd or avrdp (like 6e) in Apodosis, 121,
137 (Rem.).

A/aa w. Partic, 219.

Av (a), Adv., two uses of, in Apodosis and
in Protasis, 54. Not used w. Pres. and
Perf. Indie, 65. With Fut. Ind. : in
early poets, 55, 104 ; in Attic, 56. With
secondary tenses of Ind. in Apodosis, 66,
87, 90, 94, 127; omitted for emphasis, 98;
regularly omitted in Apod, formed by
Infin. and txPV", e8ei, &c, 97 - 100. With
Imperf. and Aor. Ind. in iterative sense,
47. With Subjunctive : in Protasis (edV,
av, or fp>), 56, 87, 102, 108; in conditional
Bel. and Temporal clauses, 56, 125, 128,
130, 143, 144, 145; often omitted in Horn,
(rarely in Attic), 104, 105, 109, 133. In
Final clauses after cos Sirios, 6rj>pa : w.
Subj., 68, 69; rarely w. Opt. 69, 70.
Omitted from tdv, orav, o? av, &c,
when the Subj. is changed to Opt.
after past tenses, 149 ; rarely retained,
163, 169. Seldom w. <is and Subj.
in Horn, similes, 132. Epic use of, w.
Subj. in Apodosis, 67, 104, 182. With
Optative, always forming Apodosis, 67,
105, 128, see Optative ; never w. Fut.
Opt, 57 ; rarely omitted, 100. With an
Opt. In Protasis which is also an Apod.,
107, 133. Ei Ke w. Opt. in Horn., 107.
Neier used w. Imperat., 67. With Infin.
and Part. : in Apodosis, 57-61, 113, 157,
169, 192, 232 ; never in Protasis, 62 ; use

of each tense with, see Present, Ac. Witb
Inf. for iterative Imperf. and Aor. w.
av, 60. Position of, 61, 62. Repetition
of, 62 - 64. Without a verb, 63. Tax'
av, perhaps, 64.

'Av (a), contracted for, edv. See 'Edv.

'Araipeoj, to give an oracular responte,
see Xpaoi.

'Ave'xoRai w. Part., 228.

'AnoKa.ij.vio w. Part, and Inf., 228.

"Apxeu w. Part., 228.

'Are, aVe 5?}, w. Part., 219.

AvrUa w. Part., 219.

"Axpi> see'Ews. 'A^pi ov, 142.

BeATtW w. Part, 228.

BouAei or /3ouAecr0e w. Interrog. Subj., 182.

BovAo/*eVa> not touto iariv, 229.

reyopeVai, to be, 19.

Ae', in Apodosis, 121. In antecedent clauses,

137.
Aei/ci/i/Ri w. Part., 229.
AeiPoV eonf ei, 120.
AijAos eifj.i w. Part., 230.
AiareAe'co w. Part., 227 ; see AavBavat.
Ai&aiixi, to offer, 5. Imperf. of, 7.
Aixatos w. Inf., 195.
Aion-ep, 171.
Aiori, 171 ; w. Inf. (Hdt.), 193.

'Eav (ei av), contracted av (a) or r/v, 66, 87

104 ; w. Subj., 102, 108.
'EjSovAojiiTjy with Infinitive in Apodosis,

without av, 98.
'ESei, expr/v (xPV")j *£y"i ef7ji> 7rpooSj/cei>

eixbs r\v rjpp,OTTev, rjv or virrip\ev, with »

Infin. in Apodosis, without av, 97 - 100.
Ei, if, 87, 92, 93, 105, 108 ; see 'Av. Sup.

posing that, 115, 168. After Oav/xd^ji,

&c, 120. With Inf. (Hdt.), 193. Ei

ydp, cr ei, in wishes, 173 - 177.

262

GREEK INDEX.

Ei, whether, 120, 147, 151 ; after verbs

of fearing 85.
Ei ydp in wishes, see Ei.
Ei 6" aye, 111.

Ei Se /u.ij in alternatives, 112.
EiSein wishes, 173-177.
Et/cbs r;* in Apodosis, see 'ESei.
Et^t U, be going .- as Future, 6 ; as Pres.,

8 ; w. Inf., 204.
Elvai, expressing a purpose, 204.
EiTrov, / commanded, w. Inf., 14, 34.
Eis o (for ews) w. Indie. (Hdt.), 142.
Eicro/ce w. Subj. and Opt., 143 ; see 'Ems.
'Ekuiv eu-ai, 208.
"Ei-eo-Ti, Partic. of, used personally w. Inf.,

194, 195.
'E^i/ in Apodosis, see'ESet.
'Ef ai<{i!'i]5 w. Part., 219.
"Ef iji/ in Apodosis, see "ESct.
'Effac or en-iji', see'Orac.
'Eiredi/, Ionic for eVTJi'.
'E7ret or eVetSij (temporal) ; w. Aor. Indie.
(not Pluperf), 25 ; w. Aor. Opt., 29 ; w.
Infin., 193. Causal, 171.
'Ena-Sav, w. Aor. Subj. as Fut. Perf., 26.

See'Orav.
'E:riSo?05 W. Inf. 195.
'E7riKaipios w. Inf., 195.

'Ejup.eAeo,aat (e7rip.e'Ao/xai), W. o7no? and
Fut. Ind., 73; w. Inf., or Inf. w. tou,
192.
*E7riT7)5eios w. Inf., 195.
"ETriTpeVw w. Part., 226.
'EcrTe, until, see'Ews.
Ev0u? w. Part., 219.
Evpio-Ko) w. Part., 226.
~E<t>nv, in Homer, 99.
"E<t> w or ecp' aire, w. Fut. Ind., 140; w Inf.,

207.
'Expiji' in Apodosis. See 'ESei.
"Ex") w. Aor. or Perf. Part, as periphrastic

Perf., 229.
Ew;, eare, dxpi, /ue'xpi, eiowe, o<f>pa, un-
til, 142-144; expressing a purpose, 143,
167, 168.
'Ecos, 6<f>pa, so long as, see Relative.

"Hkm as Perf., 5. Imperf. of, 7.
"Hpixottsv in Apodosis, see'ESet.
'Hrrdofiai, as Perf., 5.

©aOjua iSeVSai, 196.

©avp.a£co ei, Oav/xacrTov imiv el, 120.

©eAec.; or Ge\ere w. Interrog. Subjunctive

(poet.), 182.
©«(r»ri£u>, see Xpdu.

'ISetv, bpdv, in appearance, 196

'I0i w. Imperat., 178.

'Iko.v6s w Part., 228.

'I/cw or Ixivui as Perf. (Ilom.), 5.

*Ii/a, in Final clauses: w. Subj. and iyptM

67, 70 ; w. second, tenses of Indie 72.

Not used with dv, 70; 'iva «e, 70. In

Object clauses after Ai<rcro/u.ai (Horn.), 78;

similar constr. in N. Tsst., 78.
, where, with dv, 70 (R.).

Ko, Doric for «e ; see *A«».

Kai, Kaiirep («oi . . . nep), W. Part., 220,

221.
KatVoi w. Part, (rare), 221.
Ke or «eV, see 'Av.
KeicAf)o-0ai, to be called, 19.
Ktpjvpevu w. Inf. in Apodosis, 99.
Kpareu), see Nucaw.
Kpeio-o-aji/ w. Part., 228.
Kupeo) w. Part, (poet.), 227.

AavOdvia, <j>6dv<a, Tvyxdvoi, Siarekiw, W

Part., 227 ; w. Aor. Part., 34.
Ae'yio, to command, w. Inf., 14, 34.

Me'AAu,w. Inf. as periphrastic Fut., 38; tense
of Inf. with, 38. Imperf. of, w. Inf. : ex-
pressing past intention, &c, 3S, 99; form-
ing Apodosis (without dv), 99.

Mep.vrnxa.1, I remember, 19 ; w. Part., 229;
W. ore, 231.

Merafu w. Part., 219.

Me'xpi, see'Etos. Me'xpt ou, 142.

M7J, lest, in Final clauses : w. Subj. and
Opt., 67, 70 ; rarely w. Fut Ind., 68.
After verbs of striving, &c. (for on-us lltj),
77. With Fut. Ind. in prohibitions, 37,
79, 187. After verbs of fearing, &c. :
w. Subj. and Opt., 80 ; w. Fut. Ind., 82.
With Subj. (by ellipsis of a verb of fear-
ing), 83. With dv, 83. With present
and past tenses of Indie, 83-85 ; never
interrog., 84. With Fut. Opt. 39, 40.

, not, w. Iva, otrus, kc, in Final and

Object chiuse, 67. In Protasis, 88 In
Rel. clauses w. indef. anteced., 122, 124.
In wishes (with and without ei), 17 1, 176.
In prohibitions, ISO. With interrog. Subj.,
18J,. With Inf., after verbs implying ne-
gation, 198, 200, 201.

Mrj ov (double neg.) : w. Inf., 198, 200, 201-
W. Part., 200 ; before Nouns, 200.

NiKow and Kpareui, as Perf., 6.
No/ii^u), oiop-ai, and <p>)/oi.', w. Aorist.
referring to the future (?), 33.

Inf

GREEK INDEX.

263

*0 for Sir (in 3om.), 170.

Oloa (novi), / know, 19 ; see Olo9a.

Oiojxai w. Aor. Inf. for Fut. (?), 33.

Oios w. Infin., 194. Oloi', ota, ola 8»j, w.

Part., 219.
OT<70' o Spatroi' ; 179.
Oix°M<n as Perf., 6. Imperf. of, 7.
'OAiyoti (Self), almost, 208.
'OAAwp-at as Perf. (Trag.), 5.
"OAwAa, / shall perish, 19.
'Ojuoloj w. Infin. (Horn.), 197.
'On-oral', see Oraii.

'OTrore, when, see Relative. Since (causal),

171.
'Oreo?, originally Rel. Adv., 75; as indirect

inter.og., 75, 77, 85, 154. In order that,

that, in Final clauses; w. Subj. and Opt,

67, 70 ; w. av and Subj., 68, 69 ; w. Fut.

Ind., 68 ; w. second tenses of Indie, 72.

After verbs of striving, &c. : w. Fut.

Ind. (sometimes Subj. and Opt.), 73 ; w.

av and Subj. (rare), 76. That (like arf),

after verbs of fearing, &c, 85. That

(like us or on), in indirect quotations,

170.
'0™s fj.-q (for pr}), lest, that, after verbs of

fearing, &c, 82.
'Opav, ISeiv, in appearance, 196.
*Oo-oi> or is w. Absol. Infin. 207.
'Oo-os w. Infin. &34.
'Ooris av 17, 'OaTt? 7TOt" icrriv, 134.
'Oral/, OTTOTar, eTTaf or eirr^v (enedv), and

en-eiSan, 55, 125, 127, 129 ; see 'Av.
'Ore, when, see Relative. After p.dp.vT]ixai,

231. With Infin., 193.
, since (causal), 171.
'On, f&a£, in indirect quotations, 147 . w.

Ind. and Opt., 148, 149, 150 ; w. Ind. or

Opt. w. av, 156. Before direct quot., 171.
, because (causal), 171-173, see

Contents, Chap. IV., Sect. V.j after verbs
of fearing, 86.

'O TI 7TOT* eCTTLV, 'OcTTlS 7TOT* ecTTLV, &C , 134.

Ov, after /*»;, Ze.?f, 67, 80. In Apodosis, 88;
rarely in Protasis, 88 (N.). In Rel.
clauses w. def. anteced., 122. In causal
Rel. clauses, 142 (R.). In indirect dis-
course, 149.

Oi>K av (^Sai-oi; (<£0anoiTe), 228.

Ovk oiBa av el, 62.

Ou fijj, 184-187; see Contents, Chapter
IV., Section VIII. Dawes's Canon on,
79, 80.

OiiveKa, because, 171.

Oi/Tiiis, implying a Protasis, 110. With Opt.
in protestations, 175. Referring to a
Participle, 218

"Otfx-Aov, Bee ' fi^eAon.

"0</>pa (Epic and Lyric), us final particle:

w. Subj. and Opt., 67 ; w. av, 69. With

Fut. Ind., 68.
, as temporal particle, until, 142-

144 ; see siu?. So long as, see Relative.

IlaAai w. Present, 5.

nafToios yiyvo^ai (Ion.) w. Participle, 227.

napos (like TTpiv) w. Inf. (Horn.), 212.

nis w. Imperat. (2d pers.), 179.

naOw w. Part., 226.

Uei0u>, to try to persuade, 5. Imperfect
of, 7.

neipao/iai w. Part. (Hdt.), 227.

Ilepiopau), w. Part., 226 ; w. .dor. Part., 36

nioreu'w W. Inf. and Tip, 197.

UoAAd; elaij 7roAAbi tyxei/iai, W. Part.
(Ion.), 227.

npen-ei, Partic. of, used personally w. In-
fin., 194, 195.

UpiV, w. Ind., Subj., and Opt., 145, 146.
With Infin., 210 - 212. As Adverb, soon-
er, 146 (N. 5).

ripiV y ot6 (Horn.), 146.

UpXv ?,, 146, 211, 212.

WpO(T&<f)(.OIJ.£vw p.Ol TOUTO iirnv, 229.

Upocri)/<ei' in Apodosis, see "Eo"ei.
npoo-rj/<€i, Partic. of, used personally w.

Infin., 194, 195.
Up6<r8ev ^, 146, 211.
nporepoj' fj, 146, 211.
Iliis yap ai> ; IIu? ovk av ; &C, 63.

SuvoiSa, o-vyycyi'uo-/cio, w. Part., 230

Tax' °-vi 64-

TcgoiKeVai, ro fte dead", 19.

-Teo; (-rc'oi-, -re'a), Verbal in, 3, 233, 234 j

see Contents, Chapter VII.
TiAe'feis; 38.
Ti uaOJJvi Ti naQuiv; wherefore! 221,

222.
Tt Traflio ; 183, 184.
TiKTw (in tragedy) as Perf., 6.
To vvv ilvai, 208.
Tvyxavw w. Part., 227 ; see Aavddvia.

'Yo-repov rj w. Infin., 211.

4>aiiep6s eijut w. Part., 230. Qavepbv iroiciv

w. Part., 230.
*epe w. Imperat., 178, 179, 180.
tf>euyid M Perf., 6.
*7)iiu w. Aor. Inf. for Fut. (?), 33.
<I>0aj'io w. Part., 227 ; see AavOavta. <t>6dvm

i) w. Infin. (Hdt.), 212.

2G4

GREEK INDEX.

Xpaw, avaipeta, 8e<riri£iot w. Pres. or Aor.
Inf., 13, 31 ; sometimes w. Fut. Inf., 13.

'Dj, originally Eel. Adv., 75 (K.). In order
that, that, in Final clauses: w. Subj.
and Opt., 67, 70 •, w. dv and Subj., 68, 69;
w. Fut. Ind., 68 ; w. second, tenses of
Indie, 72. Sometimes (for on-cos) after
verbs of striving, &e, 77 (N. 4) ; Ho-
meric construction of, with Subj. or Opt.,
76 (N. 2.). Sometimes (for j*ij) after
verbs of fearing, 85.

, when, see Relative With Infln.,

193.

, that, in indirect quotation (like on),

147, 148, 149, 150. Once w. Subj. for Fut.
ind. (Horn.), 78, 171.

"fis, because, 171-173.

, in wishes: w. Opt., 175; w. uxf>e\ov

177. With Inf., 206, 207, 208. With
Partic, 219, 220, 225, 231, 232 ; w. Part
and dv 232.

'Clanep w. Partic, 219, 222, 226.

'Qcrwep av el (uivnepavtl), 63, 116.

'flare, so that, w. Indie, 140 With Inf.,
205 ; after verbs and adject, which com-
monly take Inf. alone, 206 (N. 2.), 205.
With Opt., Indie, or Inf. w. ax, 141, 207.
With Imperat., 141.

, in Homer, = uxrirep, as if, 207. In

Hdt., w. Partic.,= are, 219, 223.

'il<j>e\ov or w^x-AAov in wishes, 08, ML
177.

THE END.

NEW BOOKS

AND

NEW EDITIONS FOR 1879.

LATIN.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE FOR SCHOOLS AND
** COLLEGES. Translated and Edited from the German Edition of
Bender by Professor E. P. Crowell and II. B. Richardson, A.M., Amherst
College, Mass. (Ready in August.)

T\E NATURA DEORUM. Translated and Edited from the German
Edition of Schoeman by Professor Austin Stickney, formerly of Trin-
ity College, Hartford. {Beady in August.)

"DEMNANTS OF EARLY LATIN, chiefly Inscriptions. Selected
and Explained, for use in Colleges, by Frederick D. Allen, Professor
of Latin in the University of Cincinnati. (Ready in June.)

Prepared to meet the need which many of our best teachers of Latin feel,
of acquainting students with the earliest forms of Latin, as an aid to the
better comprehension of the structure of the language. There is no such
book in existence, the nearest thing to it being the large and extensive
work of Wordsworth, which is not adapted to school use.

A CRITICAL HISTORY OF CICERO'S LETTERS. By R. F. Leigh-
** ton, Ph.D., Principal of Brooklyn, N. Y., High School. The History
of the Letters "ad Familiares" is nearly ready.

A N ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON LATIN ORTHOGRAPHY. Em-
**" bracing the Latest Researches of Brambach, Ritschel, and others.
With a Vocabulary of Words often Misspelled. By It. F. Leighton, Ph.D.,
Principal of Brooklyn, N. Y., High School.

©ELECTIONS FROM THE LESS-KNOWN LATIN POETS — viz., Ca-
^ tullus, Lucretius, the Elegiac Writers, Lucan and Martial. By E. P.
Crowell, A.M., Professor of Latin, Amherst College.

PARALLEL SYNTAX OF THE MOODS IN GREEK AND LATIN.
Prepared by R. P. Keep, Ph.D., Instructor in the Classical Depart-
ment of Williston Seminary, at Easthampton. Mass. (Ready in. June.)

A NEW AND COMPLETE VIRGIL. This Edition will be printed from
** wholly new plates, and will be fully annotated by Professor J. B.
Greenough, Harvard University. It will also have numerous illustrations
from the antique.

GINN & HEATH, Publishers, Boston, New York, and Chicago,

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF NEW BOOKS.

A REVISED EDITION OF ALLEN'S LATIN COMPOSITION. Simpli-
** fied, carefully Graded, and Adapted to the New Allen & Greenough's
Latin Grammar. By W. F. Allen, Professor of Latin and History at Uni-
versity of Wisconsin and Lecturer at Johns Hopkins University. {Ready
in September. )

mHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. Edited for School and College Use by
W. F. Allen, Professor of Latin in University of Wisconsin.

GREEK..

qiHE PROMETHEUS OF AESCHYLUS. Edited, with Notes and Intro-
■*" duction, by Frederick D. Allen, Professor of Greek in the University
of Cincinnati.

QELECT ORATIONS OF DEMOSTHENES. Edited by Frank B. Tar-
^ bell, Yale College. This work will contain the three Philippics and
the Oration On the Chersonese, from the Zurich Edition of the Text, with
an Extended Historical Introduction and Explanatory Notes.

mHE PUBLIC HARANGUES OF DEMOSTHENES. Edited by Isaac
Flagg, Ph. D., Professor of Greek in Cornell University, Ithaca,
N.Y.

This work has been undertaken in view of the fact that several speeches
belonging to this head, of great merit and importance, have not as yet ap-
peared in a form convenient for college reading. The commentary, ap-
pended to a carefully edited text, will be adapted to the requirements of
students well advanced in Greek. Part First, forming a small volume by
itself, will contain the three Hellenic Orations, Symmories, Megalopolitans,
and Rhodium.

SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK LYRIC POETS, with an Historical

Introduction and Explanatory Notes. By Henry M. Tyler, Professor
of Greek and Latin in Smith College, Northampton, Mass. (Ready in
June.)

SELECTIONS FROM PINDAR AND THE BUCOLIC POETS, Contain-
** ing six Odes of Pindar, four Idylls of Theocritus, a Hymn of Calli-
machus, a Hymn of Cleanthes, and one of the Homeric Hymns; in all
thirteen hundred lines. Edited by Professor T. D. Seymour, Western Reserve
College, Ohio. (Ready in January, 1880.)

mHE FIRST THREE BOOKS OF HOMERS ILIAD. By Professor F.
E. Anderson, of Harvard University.

T1IRST TWELVE BOOKS OF HOMER'S ODYSSEY. With Introduc-
tion, Notes, and Tables of Homeric Forms, for School Use. By W.
W. Merry, A.M., Fellow and Lecturer of Lincoln College, Oxford, England.

GINN & HEATH, Publishers, Boston, New York, and Chicago.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF NEW BOOKS.

T EIGHTON'S NEW GEEEK LESSONS. With notes, references, and
**^ full vocabulary ; and references to Hadley's Greek Grammar, as well as
to Goodwin's New Greek Grammar. The Lessons have been rewritten and
arranged on the plan of the author's Latin Lessons, introducing the verb
from the first.

About sixty easy and well graded lessons, both Greek and English (one
term's work), introduces the pupil to the first book of Xenophon's Anabasis.
Definite directions are given in regard to the amount of the Grammar to be
learned. The pupil is given a clear idea of noun and verb stems, and also some
insight into the formation of words from stems and roots by means of signifi-
cant endings. Questions for Review and examination as in the first edition.
The amount of matter to be translated into Greek is sufficient to prepare a
student in Greek composition for any American college. In preparing
these lessons, considerable use has been made of the excellent exercises
used in most of the German Gymnasiums, prepared by Dr. Wasener to ac-
company Professor Curtius' Greek Grammar.

A NEW AND ENLARGED EDITION OF WHITON'S LYSIAS. Two

new orations will be added to those which the book now contains.
(Ready in September.)

MATHEMATICS.

A SERIES OF ARITHMETICS, Consisting of two books, Primary and
** Written. By Dr. Thomas Hill, ex-President of Harvard College, and
George A. Wentworth, Professorof Mathematics in Phillips Exeter Acad-
emy.

A DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. With numerous Examples and Ap-
^^ plications. Designed for use as a College Text-book. By W. E.
Byerly, Ph.D., Harvard University. This book has been used two years
in Harvard in manuscript form. (Ready in July.)

A N ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. By George A. Wentworth, Professor
** of Mathematics in Phillips Exeter Academy.

A GEOMETRY FOR BEGINNERS. Adapted to Lower and Grammar
School Work. By G. A. Hill, Harvard University. ( Ready in Sep-
tember.)

The principles which underlie the method employed in this work are the
following : —

1. Geometrical instruction for beginners should proceed from the concrete
to the abstract.

2. It should seek to develop the intellectual powers, and especially the
geometric imagination and the inventive faculty, by stimulating the self-
activity of the learner.

GEO & HEATH, Publishers, Boston, New York, and Chicago.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF NEW BOOKS.

3. It should be practical, — that is to say, it should seize every fitting
opportunity to illustrate and explain the material uses of Geometry.

Agreeably to the first of these principles, in the beginning the distinc-
tion between a body, a surface, a line, and a point, is shown by the use of
models, and later they are again employed to give clear ideas respecting
the regular solids. Many conceptions and simple relations — such as occur,
for instance, in the subject of parallels, of perpendiculars, of angles, of
intersecting lines and planes, of equal figures, of similar figures, of
polygons, &c. — are illustrated by reference to well-known objects;
and, a variety of questions are asked, which the learner can answer by
reflecting upon what he has seen. Throughout the work, definitions are
not stated in an abstract form until the ideas which they involve are already
known.

In proving theorems, instead of the formal method which begins with
the theorem and follows with the proof, unfolded step by step in syllogistic
reasoning, the method here adopted begins with the study of a figure and
the relations of its parts, and proceeds to the theorem, by the comparison
and combination of ideas, much in the same way as the discoverer of the
theorem might have done. Care has been taken to select theorems
which are simple, and which at the same time form a basis for useful
problems and applications. In a few cases, where a theorem was very de-
sirable on account of its applications, while its rigorous proof was clearly
beyond the capacity of those for whom the book is designed, the author has
not hesitated to substitute a less rigorous proof, or probable reasons of a
simple kind. Why it should be thought that, in Geometry, the choice
must, in each case, lie between the most refined product of the human
intellect and nothing at all, the author is unable to see.

The idea of ratio is made to arise naturally from that of addition ; and
that of units of measure from that of ratio.

Special stress has been laid upon the laws of the equality and of the sim-
ilarity of triangles; because, apart from their simple character, they are
the keys to nine-tenths at least of the rest of Geometry, both theoretical
and practical.

Great pains have been taken to explain, by examples, how geometrical
problems are to be attacked and solved; and numerous easy con-
structions are given, as exercises for the learner.

Exercises are appended to almost even' section, and to the end of each
chapter, and form one of the chief features of the book. They supply the
means of real intellectual training, by throwing the learner on his own
resources, and leading him to invent and to generalize for himself. They
have been very carefully selected and graded, and, where necessary, hints
for their solution have been added.

2427 4

«0

PA Goodwin, William Watson
369 Syntax of the moods and

G-6 tenses of the Greek verb.

1879 7th ed., rev.

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY